Political parties; a sociological study of the oligarchical tendencies of modern democracy

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POLITICAL PARTIES

Political Parties

A SOCIOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE
OLIGARCHICAL TENDENCIES
OF MODERN DEMOCRACY

By
ROBERT MICHELS

Professor of Political Economy and
Statistics, University of Basle

TRANSLATED BT

EDEN & CEDAR PAUL

NEW YORK
HEARST'S INTERNATIONAL LIBRARY CO.

1915

b\

^^

6

Copyright, 1915, by
Hearst's International Library Co.

All rights reserved, including translation

into foreign languages, including

tke Scandinavian

DEC II i9J5

iC!,A41.8430

CONTENTS

CHAPTBB PAGE

I. Democratic Aristocracy and Aristocratic Democracy . . 1
II. The Ethical, Embellishment of Social Struggles ... 12

PART ONE

Leadership in Democratic Organizations

A. Technical and Administrative Causes of Leadership

I. Introductory — The Need for Organization 21

II. Mechanical and Technical Impossibility op Direct Govern-
ment BY THE Masses 23

III. The Modern Democratic Party as a Fighting Party, Domi-

nated BY Militarist Ideas and Methods 41

B. Psychological Causes of Leadership

IV. The Establishment of a Customary Right to the Office op

Delegate 45

V. The Need for Leadership Felt by the Mass 49

VI. The Political Gratitude of the Masses 60

VII. The Cult of Veneration Among the Masses 63

VIII. Accessory Qualities Requisite to Leadership .... 69

IX. Accessory Peculiarities of the Masses 78

C. Intellectual Factors
X. Superiority of the Professional Leaders in Respect op
Culture, and Their Indispensability; the Formal and

Real Incompetence of the Mass 80

PART TWO

Autocratic Tendencies of Leaders

I. The Stability of Leadership 93

II. The Financial Power of the Leaders and of the Party . 107
' III. The Leaders and the Press 130

IV. The Position of the Leaders in Relation to the Masses in

Actual Practice 136

V. The Struggle Between the Leaders and the Masses . . 156
VI. The Struggle Among the Leaders Themselves .... 164
VII. Bureaucracy. Centralizing and Decentralizing Ten-
dencies 185

V

vi CONTENTS

PART THREE

The Exercise of Power and Its Psychological Reaction
UPON THE Leaders

CHAPTER PAGB

I. Psychological Metamorphosis op the Leaders .... 205

II. Bonapartist Ideology 215

III. Identification of the Party with the Leader ("Le Parti

c'estMoi") 226

PART FOUR

Social Analysis of Leadership

I. Introductory — The Class Struggle and Its Disintegrating

Influence upon the Bourgeoisie 235

II. Analysis of the Bourgeois Elements in the Socialist

Leadership 249

III. Social Changes Resulting from Organization .... 268

IV. The Need for the Differentiation of the Working Class . 289
V. Labour Leaders of Proletarian Origin 297

VI. Intellectuals, and the Need for Them in the Working-
class Parties 316

PART FIVE
Attempts to Restrict the Influence op the Leaders

I. The Referendum 333

II. The Postulate of Renunciation 339

III. Syndicalism as Prophylactic 345

IV. Anarchism as Prophylactic 357

PART SIX
Synthesis: The Oligarchical Tendencies op Organization

I. The Conservative Basis of Organization 365

^ II. Democracy and the Iron Law of Oligarchy . Z- • • • 377

III. Party-Life in War-Time 393

__IV. Final Considerations 400

Index 409

PREFACE

Mant of the most important problems of social life, though
their causes have from the first been inherent in human psy-
chology, have originated during the last hundred and fifty years ;
and even in so far as they have been handed down to us from
an earlier epoch, they have of late come to press more urgently,
have acquired a more precise formulation, and have gained fresh
significance. Many of our leading minds have gladly devoted
the best energies of their lives to attempts towards solving these
problems. The so-called principle of nationality was discovered
for the solution of the racial and linguistic problem which, un-
solved, has continually threatened Europe with war and the
majority of individual states with revolution. In the economic
sphere, the social problem threatens the peace of the world even
more seriously than do questions of nationality, and here "the
labourer's right to the full produce of his labour" has become
the rallying cry. Finally, the principle of self-government, the
corner-stone of democracy, has come to be regarded as furnishing
a solution of the problem of nationality, for the principle of
nationality entails in practical working the acceptance of the idea
of popular government. Now, experience has shown that not one
of these solutions is as far-reaching in its effects as the respective
discoverers imagined in the days of their first enthusiasm. The
importance of the principle of nationality is undeniable, and
most of the national questions of Western Europe can be and
ought to be solved in accordance with this principle ; but matters
are complicated by geographical and strategical considerations,
such as the difficulty of determining natural frontiers and the
frequent need for the establishment of strategic frontiers ; more-
over, the principle of nationality cannot help us where nation-
alities can hardly be said to exist or where they are intertangled
in inextricable confusion. As far as the economic problem is
concerned, we have numerous solutions offered by the different
schools of socialist thought, but the formula of the right to the
whole produce of labour is one which can be comprehended more
readily in the synthetic than in the analytic field ; it is easy to
formulate as a general principle and likely as such to command

viii PREFACE

widespread sympathy, but it is exceedingly difficult to apply in
actual practice. The present work aims at a critical discussion of
the third question, the problem of democracy. It is the writer's
opinion that democracy, at once as an intellectual theory and as
a practical movement, has to-day entered upon a critical phase
from which it will be extremely difficult to discover an exit.
Democracy has encountered obstacles, not merely imposed from
without, but spontaneously surgent from within. Only to a cer-
tain degree, perhaps, can these obstacles be surpassed or removed.

The present study makes no attempt to offer a ' ' new system. ' '
It is not the principal aim of science to create systems, but
rather to promote understanding. It is not the purpose of
sociological science to discover, or rediscover, solutions, since
numerous problems of the individual life and the life of social
groups are not capable of "solution" at all, but must ever remain
"open." The sociologist should aim rather at the dispas-
sionate exposition of tendencies and counter-operating forces, of
reasons and opposing reasons, at the display, in a word, of the
warp and the woof of social life. Precise diagnosis is the logical
and indispensable preliminary to any possible prognosis.
y The unravelment and the detailed formulation of the complex
of tendencies which oppose the realization of democracy are mat-
ters of exceeding difficulty. A preliminary analysis of these ten-
dencies may, however, be attempted. They will be found to be
classifiable as tendencies dependent (1) upon the nature of the
human individual; (2) upon the nature of the political struggle;
and (3) upon the nature of organization. Democracy leads to
oligarchy, and necessarily contains an oligarchical nucleus. In
making this assertion it is far from the author's intention to
pass a moral judgment upon any political party or any system
of government, to level an accusation of hypocrisy. The law that
it is an essential characteristic of all human aggregates to con-
stitute cliques and sub-classes is, like every other sociological law,
beyond good and evil.

The study and analysis of political parties constitutes a new
branch of science. It occupies an intermediate field between
the social, the philosophico-psychological, and the historical dis-
ciplines, and may be termed a branch of applied sociology. In
view of the present development of political parties, the historical
aspect of this new branch of science has received considerable
attention. "Works have been written upon the history of almost
every political party in the Western world. But when we come

PREFACE ix

to consider the analysis of the nature of party, we find that the
field has hardly been touched. To fill this gap in sociological
science is the aim of the present work.

The task has been by no means easy. So great was the extent
of the material which had to be discussed that the difficulties of
concise presentation might well seem almost insuperable. The
author has had to renounce the attempt to deal with the problem
in all its extension and all its complexity, and has confined
himself to the consideration of salient features. In the execution
of this design he has received the unwearied and invaluable help
of his wife, Gisela Michels.

This English translation is from the Italian edition, in the
preparation of which I had at my disposal the reviews of the
earlier German version. Opportunities for further emendation
of the present volume have also been afforded by the criticisms
of the recently published French and Japanese translations. But
the only event of outstanding importance in the political world
since my Political Parties was first drafted has been the out-
break of the war which still rages. The author's general con-
clusions as to the inevitability of oligarchy in party life, and
as to the difficulties which the growth of this oligarchy imposes
upon the realization of democracy, have been strikingly confirmed
in the political life of all the leading belligerent nations imme-
diately before the outbreak of the war and during the progress
of the struggle. The penultimate chapter of the present volume,
specially written for the English edition, deals with Party Life in
War-time. It will be obvious that the writer has been com-
pelled, in this new chapter, to confine himself to the discussion
of broad outlines, for we are stiU too near to the events under
consideration for accurate judgment to be possible. Moreover,
the flames of war, while throwing their sinister illumination upon
the military and economic organization of the states concerned,
leave political parties in the shadow. For the time being parties
are eclipsed by nations. It need hardly be said, however, that as
soon as the war is over party life wiU be resumed, and that the
war will be found to have effected a reinforcement of the tend-
encies characteristic of party.

EGBERT MICHELS.
Basle, 1915.

POLITICAL PARTIES

CHAPTER I

DEMOCRATIC ARISTOCRACY AND ARISTOCRATIC
DEMOCRACY

The most restricted form of oligarchy, absolute monarchy, is
founded upon the will of a single individual. Sic volo sic juheo.
Tel est mon hon plaisir. One commands, all others obey. The
will of one single person can countervail the will of the nation,
and even to-day we have a relic of this in the constitutional
monarch's right of veto. The legal justification of this regime
derives its motives from transcendental metaphysics. The logical
basis of every monarchy resides in an appeal to God. God is
brought down from heaven to serve as a buttress to the monar-
chical stronghold, furnishing it with its foundation of con-
stitutional law — the grace of God. Hence, inasmuch as it rests
upon a supra-terrestrial element, the monarchical system, con-
sidered from the outlook of constitutional law, is eternal and
immutable, and cannot be affected by human laws or by the
human will. It follows that the legal, juridical, legi^inate aboli-
tion of the monarchy is impossible, a fable of a foolish political
dreamer. Lawfully, the monarchy can be abolished by God alone
— and God's will is inscrutable.

At the antipodes of the monarchical principle, in theory,
stands democracy, denying the right of one over others. In db-
stracto, it makes all citizens equal before the law. It gives to
each one of them the possibility of ascending to the top of the
social scale, and thus facilitates the way for the rights of the
community, annulling before the law all privileges of birth, and
desiring that in human society the struggle for preeminence
should be decided solely in accordance with individual capacity.
Whereas the principle of monarchy stakes everything upon the
character of a single individual, whence it results that the best
possible monarchical government offers to the people as a whole
no guarantee for permanently benevolent and technically efficient
rule,^ democracy is, on principle, responsible to the community

^At the end of the eighteenth century this was far more clearly and

1

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2 POLITICAL PARTIES

at large for the prevailing conditions of rule, of which it is the

sole arbiter.

We know to-day that in the life of the nations the two theo-
retical principles of the ordering of the state are so elastic that
they often come into reciprocal contact, ' * car la democratic pent
embrasser tout le peuple, ou se resserrer jusqu'a la moitie;
I'aristocratie, a son tour, pent de la moitie du peuple se resserrer
jusqu'au plus petit nombre indeterminement. " ^ Thus the two
forms of government do not exhibit an absolute antithesis, but
meet at that point where the participants in power number fifty
per cent.

Our age has destroyed once for all the ancient and rigid forms
of aristocracy, has destroyed them, at least, in certain important
regions of political constitutional life. Even conservatism as-
sumes at times a democratic form. Before the assaults of the
democratic masses it has long since abandoned its primitive
aspect, and loves to change its disguise. To-day we fijid it
absolutist, to-morrow constitutional, the next day parliamentary.
Where its power is still comparatively unrestricted, as in Ger-
many, it appeals exclusively to the grace of God. But when, as
in Italy, it feels insecure, it adds to the appeal to the deity an
appeal to the popular will. In its outward forms it is capable
of the most extensive modifications. In monarchical France the
Franciae L Navarrae Bex becomes the Boy de France, and the
Boy de France becomes the Boi des Frangais.

The life of political parties, whether these are concerned chiefly
with national or with local politics, must, in theory, necessarily

expressly recognized than it is to-day, when the constitutional monarchy
has destroyed the essence of every political principle of government: —

"Servile dread, dependent upon the dazzling splendour of an inaccessible
throne, upon myriads of satellites, upon innumerable armies, and upon
the ever uplifted sword of vengeance, dependent in a word upon irresistible
power, is the only thing that holds these monarchies together and secures
the safety of the despots and their satraps. At times, indeed, fate sends
a liberator to the unfortunate, a Cyrus who breaks the old fetters, and who
rules a reconstituted kingdom with wisdom and a truly paternal spirit: but
this rarely happens, and the good thus effected is for the most part per-
sonal and transient; for the prime source of the evil, the political struc-
ture, remains, and a succession of stupid or vicious monarchs will speedily
destroy all that has been built up by the one benevolent sovereign" (C. M.
Wieland, Eine Lustreise ins Elysium, Complete Works, Shrambl, Vienna,
1803, vol. i, p. 209).

* J, J. Rousseau, Le Contrat social, Bibliotheque Nationale, 6th ed., Paris,
1871, p. 91.

DEMOCRACY AND ARISTOCRACY. 3

exhibit an even stronger tendency towards democracy than that "
which is manifested by the state. The political party is founded
in most eases on the principle of the majority, and is founded
always on the principle of the mass. The result of this is that
the parties of the aristocracy have irrevocably lost the aristo-
cratic purity of their principles. While remaining essentially
anti-democratic in nature, they find themselves compelled, at any
rate in certain periods of political life, to make profession of the
democratic faith, or at least to assume the democratic mask.
Whereas the democratic principle, from its very nature, by
reason of the mutability of the popular will and of the fluc-
tuating character of the majority, tends in theory to transform
the Travra pel of Heraclitus into the reality of national and
popular life, the conservative principle erects its edifice upon
certain bases or norms which are immutable in their nature,
determined by the test of experience to be the best or at any rate
the least bad, and consequently claimed as valid sub specie ceter-
nitatis. Nevertheless, the conservative principle must not be
understood in the sense of an unconditional maintenance of the
status quo. If that principle consisted merely in the recognition
of what already exists, above all in the matter of the legal forms
prevailing in a given country or period, conservatism would lead
to its own destruction.^ In periods and among nations where the
old conservative elements have been expelled from direct par-
ticipation in power, and have been replaced by innovators fight-
ing under the banner of democracy, the conservative party as-
sumes an aspect hostile to the existing order of the state, and
sometimes even a revolutionary character.'* Thus, however, is

' Concerning the nature of conservatism, consult the interesting study of
Oskar Stillich, Die Politischen Parteien in Deutschland,, vol. i, Die Konser-
vativen, Klinkhardt, Leipzig, 1909, pp. 18 et seq.

*0r counter revolutionary? A definite historical signification is often
associated with the word revolution, and the prototype of revolution in this
sense is the great French Kevolution. Thus the expression revolutionary
ia frequently applied simply to the struggle for liberty conducted by in-
ferior classes of the population against superior, if this struggle assumes
a violent form, whereas logically revolution implies nothing but a funda-
mental transformation, and the use of the term cannot be restricted to de-
scribe the acts of any particular class, nor should it be associated with
any definite external form of violence. Consequently every class is revo-
lutionary which, whether from above or from below, whether by force of
arms, by legal means, or by economic methods, endeavours to bring about
a radical change in the existing state of affairs. From this outlook, the
concepts revolutionary and reactionary (reactionary as contrasted with

POLITICAL PARTIES

n

effected a metamorpliosis of the conservative party, which, from
a clique cherishing an aristocratic exclusivism at once by instinct
and by conviction, now becomes a popular party. The recognition
that only the masses can help to reintroduce the ancient aristoc-
racy in its pristine purity, and to make an end of the democratic
regime, transforms the very advocates of the conservative view
into democrats. They recognize unreservedly the sufferings of
the common people; they endeavour, as did very recently the
royalists in the French Eepublic, to ally themselves with the
revolutionary proletariat, promising to defend this against the
exploitation of democratic capitalism and to support and even to
extend labour organizations — all this in the hope of destroying
the Eepublic and restoring the Monarchy, the ultimate fruit of
the aristocratic principle.^ Le Boy et les camelots du Boy — the
king and the king's poor — are to destroy the oligarchy of the
bloated plutocrats. Democracy must be eliminated by the demo-
cratic way of the popular will. The democratic method is the
sole one practicable by which an old aristocracy can attain to a
renewed dominion. Moreover, the conservatives do not usually
wait until they have been actually driven from power before

conservative) , revolution and counter-revolution, fuse into a single whole.
It is moreover utterly unscientific to associate with these terms moral ideas
whose theoretical bearing is purely evolutionary. For example, Eaumer,
writing from Paris in 1830, expressed the matter very well as follows:
"All these men [the liberals] regard as revolutionary the abolition of
anciently established institutions and evils, whereas by counter-revolution
they understand the restoration of these or of other abuses. Their ad-
versaries, on the other hand, understand by revolution the aggregate of aU
the follies and crimes that have ever been committed, whereas by counter-
revolution they mean the re-establishment of order, of authority, of re-
ligion, and so on" (Friedrich von Eaumer, Brief e aus Paris und FranJcreich
im Jahre 1830, F. A. Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1831, Part II, p. 26).— Cf. also
Wilhelm Eoscher, FolitiTc, Geschichtliche Naturlehre der Monarchic, Aris-
tolcratie und DemoTcratie, Cotta, Stuttgart-Berlin, 1908, 3rd ed., p. 14. — Yet
we have to remember that in political matters such judgments of value may
be effective means of struggle towards political and sometimes also towards
moral ends; but they are apt to lead us astray if we use them to aid us in
defining historical tendencies or conceptions.

® Cf . the royalist propagandist work by Georges Valois, a trade unionist,
La Monarchic et la Classe ouvriere, Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, Paris,
1909, pp. 45 et seq. Valois pays ardent court to French syndicalism as the
one great movement which now has the support of the masses. His conser-
vatism is quite undisturbed by the contemplation of the idea that his king
can be established on the throne only by means of a revolution, becomiag
king no longer by the grace of God, but by the grace of the revolutionary
socialists.

DEMOCRACY AND ARISTOCRACY 5

appealing to the masses. In countries where a democratic regime
prevails, as in England, they spontaneously turn to the working
class wherever this forms the most conspicuous constituent of
the masses.*^ In other countries, also, where parliamentary gov-
ernment is unknown, but where there exists universal and equal
suffrage, the parties of the aristocracy owe their political exist-
ence to the charity of the masses to whom in theory they deny
political rights and political capacity.'^ The very instinct of self-
preservation forces the old groups of rulers to descend, during
the elections, from their lofty seats, and to avail themselves of
the same democratic and demagogic methods as are employed
by the youngest, the widest, and the most uncultured of our
social classes, the proletariat.

The aristocracy to-day maintains itself in power by other
means than parliamentary ; at any rate in most of the monarchies

°Iii the violent electoral struggles ia England in January 1910, it may
be said that both parties, liberals and conservatives alike, in view of the
manner in which they fought one another, were essentially working for
socialist ideas and for the victory of the proletariat. The liberals did this
by unfurling the flag of democracy, by working for the suppression of the
House of Lords, and by advocating an extensive programme of far-reaching
social reforms; while the conservatives displayed before the eyes of the
workers all the misery of their existence in capitalist society; both parties
did this by promising more than they could perform, and by recognizing in
the whole conduct of their political agitation that the working class has
become the decisive force in politics. The comments made at the time in
the socialist papers of Germany were extremely apt: "The English con-
servatives do not preach resignation to the workers, but discontent. Whereas
the Prussian conservatives, for example, are in the habit of telling the
working classes that nowhere in the world are they so well off as in Ger-
many, the English conservatives assure their constituents that nowhere
in the world are the workers worse off than in England." Naturally the
aim of these assurances was to persuade the electorate to accept the aboli-
tion of the detested system of free trade, and to establish a protectionist
system which would redound to their advantage. This idea has long been
cherished by the English conservatives, but they cannot put it into practice
except with the aid of the revolutionary labouring class.

' The merit of having recognized this truth with precision and of having
applied it to the practice of the conservative party belongs especially to the
great political leaders of ultra-conservative elements in Germany, Ham-
merstein and Stocker. Hammerstein, from 1881 to 1895 editor of the
* ' Kreuzzeitung, " was the first who clearly perceived the necessity, in order
to save the life of his party, of acquiring the ''confidence of the masses"
(cf. Hans Leuss, Wilhelm Freiherr von Hammerstein, Walther, Berlin,
1905, p. 109). At the party congress held in Berlin in 1892, the proposal
by a delegate from Chemnitz that the conservatives should become more
"demagogic" received universal approval.

6 POLITICAL PARTIES

it does not need a parliamentary majority in order to be able to
hold the reins by which is guided the political life of the state.
But it does need, were it merely for decorative purposes and in
order to influence public opinion in its favour, a respectable
measure of parliamentary representation. It does not obtain this
representation by divulging its true principles, or by making
appeal to those who are truly of like mind with itself. A party
of the landed gentry which should appeal only to the members
of its own class and to those of identical economic interests,
would not win a single seat, would not send a single representa-
tive to parliament. A conservative candidate who should present
himself to his electors by declaring to them that he did not
regard them as capable of playing an active part in influencing
the destinies of the country, and should tell them that for this
reason they ought to be deprived of the suffrage, would be a man
of incomparable sincerity, but politically insane. If he is to find
his way into parliament he can do so by one method only. With
democratic mien he must descend into the electoral arena, must
hail the farmers and agricultural labourers as professional col-
leagues, and must seek to convince them that their economic
and social interests are identical with his own. Thus the aristo-
crat is constrained to secure his election in virtue of a principle
which he does not himself accept, and which in his soul he
abhors. His whole being demands authority, the maintenance
of a restricted suffrage, the suppression of universal suffrage
wherever it exists, since it touches his traditional privileges.
Nevertheless, since he recognizes that in the democratic epoch
by which he has been overwhelmed he stands alone with this
political principle, and that by its open advocacy he could never
hope to maintain a political party, he dissembles his true
thoughts, and howls with the democratic wolves in order to
secure the coveted majority,^

*Naumann writes very aptly: "We can readily understand that con-
servatives have no love for universal suffrage. It has an injurious influ-
ence upon their character, for no one can very well stand up before an
electoral meeting and frankly enunciate the principle. Authority, not Ma-
jority. ... It is only in certain privileged bodies, such as the Prussian
Upper House, or the First Chamber of Saxony, that the conservative can
show himself in his true colours. The modern conservative is a living com-
promise, an authoritarian in democratic gloves. . . . An aristocracy en-
gaged in political agitation! If in this alone, we see the influence of the
democratic tendency" (Friedrich Naumann, DemoJcratie und Kaisertum,
ein Handbuch fiir innere PolitiJc, Buchverlag der "Hilfe, " Berlin-Schone-

DEMOCRACY AND ARISTOCRACY 7

The influence of popular suffrage upon the outward behaviour
of conservative candidates is so extensive that when two can-
didates of the same political views present themselves in a single
constituencv, each of them is forced to attempt to distinguish
himself from his rival by a movement to the left, that is to
say, by laying great stress upon his reputedly democratic prin-
ciples.^

Such occurrences serve to confirm the experience that the con-
servatives also endeavour to regulate their actions in conformity
with the fundamental principle of modern politics, a principle
destined to replace the religious dictum that many are called
but few are chosen, and to replace also the psychological theory
that ideals are accessible solely to a minority of choice spirits:
this principle may be summed up in the terms of Curtius, who
said that the conservative cannot gain his ends with the aid of
a small and select body of troops, but must control the masses
and rule through the masses.^" The conservative spirit of the
old master-caste, however deeply rooted it may be, is forced to
assume, at least during times of election, a specious democratic
mask.

Nor does the theory of liberalism primarily base its aspirations
upon the masses. It appeals for support to certain definite
classes, which in other fields of activity have already ripened for
mastery, but which do not yet possess political privileges — ap-
peals, that is to say, to the cultured and possessing classes. For
the liberals also, the masses pure and simple are no more than a
necessary evil, whose only use is to help others to the attainment
of ends to which they themselves are strangers. The first great
liberal writer of Germany, Rotteck, reproaches the Queen of
France for having, during the Revolution, forced the bourgeoisie
to appeal to the common people for aid. He distinguishes be-

berg, 1904, p, 92). Cf. also Ludwig Gumplowicz (SozialphilosopMe im
TJmriss, Wagner, Innsbruck, 1910, p. 113), who regards the tendencies and
the natural needs of landed property as one of the most essential props
of conservatism.

* This applies equally to France. Cf . Aime Berthod (Sous-chef de cabinet
au Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres), in a discussion upon Electoral Ee-
form which took place at the society "Union pour la verite," and was
published in the society's organ "Libres Entretiens," 6th series, iv, La
Representation proportionnelle et la Constitution des Fartis poUtiques,
Paris, January 23, 1910, p. 212.

^"Friedrich Curtius, Ueber Gerechtigheit und PolitiJc, "Deutsche Eund-
Bchau," yyiii, 1897, fasc. 4, p. 46.

8 POLITICAL PARTIES

tween two kinds of democracy, the rule of representatives and
the rule of the masses.^^ During the revolution of June 1830,
Raumer, who was in Paris, broke into vigorous lamentation be-
cause the masses possessed power, and said that it would be
extremely difficult * ' to deprive them of this power without giving
them offence and without provoking them to a fresh revolt
against their new chiefs"; ^^ at the same time, in words express-
ing the dithyrambic spirit of romanticism, he refers to the con-
ditions that obtain in his Prussian fatherland, where king and
people * ' truly live in a higher and purer atmosphere, ' ' and where
the contented bourgeoisie is not endeavouring to secure additional
rights. From the history of the origin of the North German
Reichstag we learn that another eminent liberal leader and
advocate of liberal views, the historian Heinrich von Sybel, de-
clared himself opposed to universal, equal, and direct suffrage,
on the ground (which can be understood solely with reference
to the explanations given above regarding the peculiar concep-
tions the liberals have of the masses) that such a right must
signify "the beginning of the end for every kind of parlia-
mentarism"; such a right, he said, was eminently a right of
dominion; and he was impelled to utter an urgent warning to
the German monarchy not to introduce these dangerous elements
of democratic dictatorship into the new federal state.^^ The.
inward dislike of liberalism for the masses is also apparent in
the attitude of the liberal leaders to the principles and institu-
tions of aristocracy. Since the inauguration of universal suf-i
frage and the consequent prospect that there will in the near,
future be a majority of socialist tendencies among the electorate
or in the Lower House, many liberals, so Roscher affirms, have

""It was this opposition [of the ultra-monarchical friends of Louis
XVI to the well-disposed liberals] which set itself against the idea of
bourgeois and political freedom that was spreading, not in France alone,
but in aU the other civilized countries of Europe, that forced upon the
Eevolution (which otherwise might have been purely beneficial) its evil
and destructive character. It was this which led the representatives of
the people to endeavour to avoid the threatened ruin by calling the masses
to their aid; it was this which led to the unchaining of the rough and
lawless force of the mob, and thus threw open the box of Pandora" (Carl
von Eotteck, Allgemeine GeschicJite vom Anfang der historischen Kenntniss
his auf unsere Zeiten, Herdersche Buchhandlung, Freiburg, 1826, vol. ix, p.
83).

*^Friedrich von Eaumer, Brief e aus Paris, etc. Op. cit., vol. i, p. 176.

*'Cf. Otto von Diest-Daber, Geldmacht und Sosidlismus, Puttkammer u.
Miihlbrecht, Berlin, 1875, p. 13.

DEMOCRACY AND ARISTOCRACY 9

come to take a different view of the powers of the Crown and
of the Upper House/* as means by which it is possible to prevent
decisions of the Lower House being immediately realized in legis-
lative measures. The same author contends that an extension
of the suffrage is undesirable "in the absence of a profound
statistical inquiry, ' ' that is to say, in the absence of a laborious
analysis of the numerical relationships that obtain among the
various classes of the population. Recently, even in that liberal
group which in Germany stands nearest to the socialists, the
group of "national socialists," there has been evidence of a tend-
ency to consider that it is by no means a bad thing "for
obstacles to be imposed upon the influence in political affairs of
the mutable and incalculable popular will which finds expression
in the Reichstag, for the national socialists consider it desirable
that there should exist also aristocratic elements, independent of
the popular will, ever vigilant, armed with the right of veto, to
constitute a permanent moderating element. ' ' ^^

For an entire century, from the days of Rotteck to those of
Naumann, German writers have laboured in the sweat of their

" Eoscher, op. cit., p. 321.

^Martin Eade, in a leading article (Das Allgemeine WahlrecM ein Kd-
nigliches Becht, "Hessische Landeszeitung, " xxiii, No. 25, 1907) favouring
the election of the national-socialist Helmuth von Gerlaeh at Marburg,
■wrote as follows in order to still the alarms of the adversaries of universal
suffrage: "The case would be very different if our Eeichstag were the
actual director of the government, if it alone could decide the internal and
external destinies of our people! But it is merely one among the elements
of our constitution! Beside it, or rather above it, stands the Bundesrat
(Federal Council), and not the most trifling proposition can become law
unless with the assent of the Imperial Chancellor, the Emperor, and the
Princes. Certainly the Federal Council will not permanently oppose a
strong and reasonable expression of the popular wiU which is manifested
in a constitutional manner in the Eeichstag; but such resolutions of the
Eeichstag as it regards as injudicious it will reject, and often has rejected.
By this means, precautions are taken to limit the power of universal suf-
frage, just as nature takes care that trees do not grow to touch the skies. It
is well for our legislation that we have these two Chambers, and not the
Eeichstag alone." Such considerations run like a red thread through the
entire history of bourgeois liberalism, of which they are, ia fact, a con-
genital defect. Already in the work of Guizot, which in the literature of
the young bourgeoisie occupies the place taken in socialist literature by the
Communist Manifesto of Karl Marx, we read this praise of the French.
House of Peers, that its significance is to be "un privilege place la ou il
pent servir" (F. Guizot, Du Gouvernement de la France depuis la Bestaura-
tion, et du Ministere actuel, Librairie Frangaise de Ladvocat, Paris, 1820,
p. 14).

J

10 POLITICAL PARTIES

brow to effect a theoretical conciliation between democracy and
military monarchy, and to unite these natural opposites in a
higher unity. Hand in hand with their honourable endeavours
on behalf of this loftier aim have proceeded their attempts to
defeudalize the monarchy to the utmost, with the sole purpose
of substituting for the aristocratic guardians of the throne guar-
dians speaking with professional authority. The task they set
themselves was to lay the theoretical foundations, if not of the
so-called social monarchy, at least of the popular monarchy. It
is evident that such an objective involves a political tendency
which has nothing in common with science, but which is not in
necessary opposition to or in contradiction with science (it is the
method which must decide this), being a political tendency which
is, qua political, outside the domain of science. It cannot be
made a reason for blaming German men of science that there
exists in Germany a tendency towards the construction of some-
thing resembling the July Monarchy, for this tendency rests
within the orbit of polities. But it is plainly a matter for his-
torical censure when we find an attempt to identify the monar-
chical principle which has for some decades been dominant in
Prussianized Germany with the cherished idea of the popular (or
social) monarchy. In committing such an error, the majority of
German liberal theorists and historians mistake dreams for real-
ity. In this confusion rests the organic defect of all German
liberalism, which since 1866 has continually endeavoured to dis-
guise its change of front (that is to say, its partisan struggle
against socialism and its simultaneous and voluntary renuncia-
tion of all attempts to complete the political emancipation of
the German bourgeoisie), by the fallacious assertion that with
the unification of Germany and the establishment of the empire
of the HohenzoUerns all or almost all the aspirations of its demo-
cratic youth have been realized. The fundamental principle of
modern monarchy (hereditary monarchy) is absolutely irrecon-
cilable with the principles of democracy, even when these are
understood in the most elastic sense. Csesarism is still democracy,
or may at least still claim the name, when it is based upon the
popular will; but automatic monarchy, never.

We may sum up the argument by saying that in modern party
life aristocracy gladly presents itself in democratic guise, whilst
the substance of democracy is permeated with aristocratic ele-
ments. On the one side we have aristocracy in a democratic
form, and on the other democracy with an aristocratic content.

DEMOCRACY AND ARISTOCRACY 11

The democratic external form which characterizes the life of I
political parties may readily veil from superficial observers the,/
tendency towards aristocracy, or rather towards oligarchy, which '
is inherent in all party organization. If we wish to obtain light
upon this tendency, the best field of observation is offered by the
intimate structure of the democratic parties, and, among these,
of the socialist and revolutionary labour party. In the conserva-
tive parties, except during elections, the tendency to oligarchy
manifests itself with that spontaneous vigour and clearness which
corresponds with the essentially oligarchical character of these
parties. But the parties which are subversive in their aims ex-
hibit the like phenomena no less markedly. The study of the
oligarchical manifestations in party life is most valuable and
most decisive in its results when undertaken in relation to the
revolutionary parties, for the reason that these parties, in respect
of origin and of programme, represent the negation of any such
tendency, and have actually come into existence out of opposition
thereto. Thus the appearance of oligarchical phenomena in the
very bosom of the revolutionary parties is a conclusive proof of
the existence of immanent oligarchical tendencies in every kind
of human organization which strives for the attainment of
definite ends.

In theory, the principle of social and democratic parties is
the struggle against oligarchy in all its forms. The question
therefore arises how we are to explain the development in such
parties of the very tendencies against which they have declared
war. To furnish an unprejudiced analytical answer to this ques-
tion constitutes an important part of the task the author has
undertaken.

In the society of to-day, the state of dependence that results
from the existing economic and social conditions renders an ideal
democracy impossible. This must be admitted without reserve.
But the further question ensues, whether, and if so how far,
within the contemporary social order, among the elements which
are endeavouring to overthrow that order and to replace it by
a new one, there may exist in the germ energies tending to ap-
proximate towards ideal democracy, to find outlet in that direc-
tion, or at least to work towards it as a necessary issue.

CHAPTER II

THE ETHICAL EMBELLISHMENT OF SOCIAL
STRUGGLES

No one seriously engaged in historical studies can liave failed
to perceive that all classes which have ever attained to dominion
have earnestly endeavoured to transmit to their descendants such
political power as they have been able to acquire. The hereditary
transmission of political power has always been the most effica-
cious means of maintaining class rule. Thus there is displayed
in this field the same historical process which in the domain of
the sexual life has given rise to the bourgeois family-order and
its accessories, the indissolubility of marriage, the severe penal-
ties inflicted upon the adulterous wife, and the right of primo-
geniture. In so far as we can draw sound conclusions from the
scanty prehistoric data that are available, it seems that the bour-
geois family owes its genesis to the innate tendency of man, as
soon as he has attained a certain degree of economic well-being,
to transmit his possessions by inheritance to the legitmate son
whom he can with reasonable certainty regard as his own. The
same tendency prevails in the field of politics, where it is kept
active by all the peculiar and inherent instincts of mankind, and
where it is vigorously nourished by an economic order based
therefore, by a natural and psychological analogy, political power
comes also to be considered as an object of private hereditary
ownership. In the political field, as everywhere else, the paternal
instinct to transmit this species of property to the son has been
always strongly manifest throughout historic time. This has
been one of the principal causes of the replacement of elective
monarchy by hereditary monarchy. The desire to maintain a
position acquired by the family in society has at all times been
so intense that, as Gaetano Mosca has aptly noted, whenever
certain members of the dominant class have not been able to
have sons of their own (as, for example, was the case with the
prelates of the Roman Church), there has arisen with spon-
taneous and dynamic force the institution of nepotism, as an

12

THE ETHICAL SIDE 13

extreme manifestation of the impulse to self-maintenance iand to
hereditary transmission.^

In a twofold manner aristocracy has introduced itself quite
automatically in those states also from which it seemed to be
excluded by constitutional principles, by historical considera-
tions, or by reason of the peculiarities of national psychology —
alike by way of a revived tradition and by way of the birth of
new economic forces. The North Americans, democrats, living
under a republican regime and knowing nothing of titles of
nobility, by no means delivered themselves from aristocracy when
they shook off the power of the English crown. This phenome-
non is in part the simple effect of causes that have come into
existence quite recently, such as capitalist concentration (with
its associated heaping-up of the social power in the hands of
the few and consequent formation of privileged minorities), and
the progressive reconciliation of the old and rigid republican
spirit with the ideas, the prejudices, and the ambitions of ancient
Europe. The existence of an aristocracy of millionaires, railway
kings, oil kings, cattle kings, etc., is now indisputable. But even
at a time when the youthful democracy and the freedom of Amer-
ica had only just been sealed with the blood of its citizens, it
was difficult (so we learn from Alexis de Tocqueville) to find a
single American who did not plume himself with an idle vanity
upon belonging to one of the first families which had colonized
American soil.^ So lively was ''aristocratic prejudice" among
these primitive republicans! Even at the present day the old
families which are Dutch by name and origin constitute in the
State of New York a stratum whose aristocratic preeminence is
uncontested, a class of patricians lacking the outward attributes
of nobility.

When, in the latter half of the seventeenth century, the French
bourgeoisie was vigorously pressing upward, it knew no better
how to adapt itself to its changed environment than by aping
the usages, the mode of life, the tastes, and even the mentality
of the feudal nobility. In 1670 Moliere wrote his splendid
comedy, Le Bourgeois gentilhomme. The Abbe de Choisy, who
belonged to the noblesse de rohe, and whose ancestors had filled
the distinguished offices of Maitre des Requites and Conseiller

^ Gaetano Mosca, II Principio aristocratico e il democratico nel passato e
neV avvenire (inaugural address), Stamperia Paravia, Turin, 1903, p. 22.

^Alexis de Tocqueville, Be la democratie en Amerique, Gosseline, Paris,
1849, Part II, vol, ii, p. 19.

14 POLITICAL PARTIES

d'Etat, relates that his mother had given him as a maxim of
conduct that he should be careful to frequent none but aristo-
cratic salons.^ With the fervour of the novice, the new arrivals
assimilated the spirit and the principles of the class hitherto
dominant, and the distinguished members of the bourgeoisie who
had entered the service of the state, which was still predomi-
nantly feudal, hastened to take new names. The Fouquets, the
Le Telliers, the Colberts, the Phelippeaux, and the Desmarets,
became the Belle-Isles^ the de Louvois, the de Seignelays, the de
Maurepas, the de Maillebois, and the de Lavrillieres.* In modern
Germany, under our very eyes, there has for the last forty years
been proceeding an absorption of the young industrial bour-
geoisie into the old aristocracy of birth, and the process has of
late been enormously accelerated.^ The German bourgeoisie is
becoming feudalized. Here the only result of the emancipation
of the roturier has been to reinvigorate his old enemy the noble
by the provision of new blood and new economic energy. The
enriched bourgeois have no higher ambition than to fuse with
the nobility, in order to derive from this fusion a kind of legiti-
mate title for their connection with the dominant class^ a title
which can then be represented, not as acquired, but as existing
by hereditary right. Thus we see that the hereditary principle
(even when purely fictitious) greatly accelerates the process of
social "training," accelerates, that is to say, the adaptation of
the new social forces to the old aristocratic environment.

In the violent struggle between the new class of those who are
rising and the old stratum of those who are undergoing a deca-
dence partly apparent and partly real — a struggle at times
waged with dramatic greatness, but often proceeding obscurely,
so as hardly to attract attention — moral considerations are drawn
into the dance, and pulled this way and that by the various con-
tending parties, who use them in order to mask their true aims.
In an era of democracy, ethics constitute a weapon which every-
one can employ. In the old regime, the members of the ruling
class and those who desired to become rulers continually spoke

^Abbe de Choisy, Memoir es pour servir a, I'Eistoire de Louis XIV, Van
De Water, Utrecht, 1727, p. 23.

* Pierre Edouard Lemontey, Essai sw I'etahlissement monarcMque de
Louis XIV, Appendix to Nouveaux memoires de Vangeau, republislied by
the author, Deterville, Paris, 1818, p. 392.

* Cf . the striking examples furnished by Werner Sombart, Die deutsche
Volkswirtschaft im XIX JahrJiundert, Bondi, Berlin, 1903, pp. 545, et seq.

THE ETHICAL SIDE 15

of their own personal rights. Democracy adopts a more diplo-
matic, a more prudent course. It has rejected such claims as
unethical. To-day, all the factors of public life speak and
struggle in the name of the people, of the community at large.
The government and rebels against the government, kings and
party-leaders, tyrants by the grace of God and usurpers, rabid
idealists and calculating self-seekers, all are "the people," and
all declare that in their actions they merely fulfil the will of the
nation.

Thus, in the modern life of the classes and of the nations,
moral considerations have become an accessory, a necessary fic-
tion. Every government endeavours to support its power by a
general ethical principle. The political forms in which the
various social movements become crystallized also assume a phil-
anthropic mask. There is not a single one among the young class-
parties which fails, before starting on its march for the conquest
of power, to declare solemnly to the world that its aim is to
redeem, not so much itself as the whole of humanity, from the
yoke of a tyrannical minority, and to substitute for the old and
inequitable regime a new reign of justice. Democracies are
always glib talkers. Their terminology is often comparable to a
tissue of metaphors. The demagogue, that spontaneous fruit of
democratic soil, overflows with sentimentality, and is profoundly
moved by the sorrows of the people. "Les victimes soignent
leurs mots, les bourreaux sont ivres de philosophic larmoyante,"
writes Alphonse Daudet in this connection.^ Every new social
class, when it gives the signal for an attack upon the privileges
of a class already in possession of economic and political power,
inscribes upon its banners the motto : ' ' The Liberation of the
entire Human Race ! ' ' "When the young French bourgeoisie was
girding its loins for the great struggle against the nobles and the
clergy, it began with the solemn Declaration des Droits de
V Homme, and hurled itself into the fray with the war-cry
Liberie, Egalite, Fraiernite! To-day we can ourselves hear the
spokesmen of another great class-movement, that of the wage-
earners, announce that they undertake the class-struggle from no
egoistic motives, but on the contrary in order to exclude such
.motives for ever from the social process. For the refrain of its
Hymn of Progress modern socialism ever reiterates the proud

'Leon A. Daudet, Alphonse Daudet, Bibliotheque Charpentier. E.
Fasquelle, Paris, 1898, p. 142.

16 POLITICAL PARTIES

words : * ' Creation of a humane and fraternal society in whieli
class will be unknown!"

The victorious bourgeoisie of the Droits de V Homme did, in-
deed, realize the republic, but not democracy. The words Liberie,
Egalite, Fraternite may be read to this day over the portals of
all French prisons. The Commune was the first attempt,
crowned by a transient success, at a proletarian-socialist govern-
ment; and despite its communistic principles, and under the
pressure of extreme financial stringency, the Commune respected
the Bank of France as faithfully as could have done any syn-
dicate of inexorable capitalists. There have been revolutions, but
the world has never witnessed the establishment of logical de-
mocracy.

Political parties, however much they may be founded upon
narrow class interests and however evidently they may work
against the interests of the majority, love to identify themselves
with the universe, or at least to present themselves as co-operat-
ing with all the citizens of the state, and to proclaim that they
are fighting in the name of all and for the good of all.7 It is
only the socialist orators who are sometimes found to proclaim
that their party is specifically a class party. But they tone down
this assertion by adding that in ultimate analysis the interests of
their party coincide with those of the entire people. It is, indeed,
true that in protesting that it enters the lists in the interests of
the whole of humanity the socialist party, representing the most
numerous* class of the population, is nearer to the truth than
are the bourgeois parties when these make the same claim, for
they by their very nature are parties of the minority.^ But the

^ The adherents of pessimism in sociology, writing for the most part in-
dependently of one another, have drawn express attention to the confu-
sion, in part conscious and in part unconscious, characteristic of all revo-
lutionary and reforming movements, between the interests or aims of class
and of party and the interests or aims of the human race. Cf. more par-
ticularly Gaetano Mosca, Elementi di Sciensa poUtica, Bocca, Turin, 1896,
pp. 75 et seq. ; Ludwig Gumplowicz, op. cit., pp. 23, 70, 71, 94, 123; Vilfredo
Pareto, Les Systemes Socialistes, Giard et Briere, Paris, 1892, vol. i, p.
59; Ludwig Woltmann, Politische Anthropologie, Thiiringische Verlagsan-
stalt, Leipzig, 1903, pp. 299 et seq. Moreover, this confusion is not peculiar
to democracy. Aristocracy also claims to represent on principle, not the
interests of a small social group, but those of the entire people without dis-
tinction of class (as far as the German conservatives are concerned cf.
Oskar Stillich, op. cit., p. 3). But it is here easier to recognize the true
nature of the democratic mask.

^An extremely elaborate and able description of the intimate relation-

THE ETHICAL SIDE 17

socialist claim, is also far from the truths seeing that the two
terms humaniti/ and party are far from being identical in exten-
sion, even if the party under consideration should embrace, or
believe itself to embrace, the great majority of humanity. When
for opportunist reasons the socialist party declares to the electors
that socialism proposes to give to all, but to take nothing from
any, it suffices to point out that the enormous differences of
wealth which exist in society render it impossible to keep any such
promise. The giving presupposes a taking away, and if the
proletarians wish to bring about an equality of economic status
between themselves on the one hand and the Rothschilds, Vander-
bilts, and Eockefellers on the other, which could be done only by
socializing the means of production and exchange to-day owned
by these various millionaires, it is obvious that the wealth and
power of these great bourgeois princes would be considerably
diminished. To the same opportunist party tendency we must
ascribe the formulation of the socialist theory which, in apparent
accordance with the fundamental principle of the Marxist
political economy, divides the population into owners of the
means of production and non-owners dependent upon these, pro-
ceeding to the contention that all the owners must be capitalist in
sentiment while all the dependents must be socialists, that is to
say, must desire the triumph of socialism. This view is utterly
fallacious, for it regards as the unique or most certain criterion
for determining the class to which an individual belongs the
amount of his income, which is a purely external characteristic,
and then proceeds (in a manner which is perhaps effective in
political life, but which is eminently contestable on theoretical
grounds) to enlarge the concept of the proletariat so that all
employees, governmental or private, may be claimed for the
party of labour. According to this theory the directors of
Krupp or the Minister-Presidents of Russia, since as such they
are non-owners and employees, are dependents upon the means of
production, ought to espouse with enthusiasm the cause of social-
ships between party and collectivity will be found in an essay by Karl
Kautsky, Klasseninteresse, Sonderinteresse, Parteiinteresse, "Neue Zeit"
xxi, vol. ii, Nos. 34 and 35. I may also refer those who care to study the
relationship between the interests of humanity as a whole and the interests
of the proletariat as a social class, to the consideration put forward in my
own Das Proletariat in der Wissenschaft und die OelconomiscJi-Anthropolo-
gische Synthese, published as preface to the German translation of Nice-
foro's work Anthropologie der nichtbesitsenden Klassen, Studien und Un-
tersuchungen, Maas und van Suchtelen, Leipzig- Amsterdam, 1909.

18 POLITICAL PARTIES

ism — ought to do so, at least, in so far as they understand their
true position in society, in so far as they have become what
the socialists term * ' class-conscious. ' ' ^

The ideal impetuosity of youthful movements aiming at eman-
cipation is depicted by anti-democratic writers as a pious illusion,
as the pursuit of a will-o'-the-wisp, arising from the need to
make the particular good assume the aspect of the general
good.^° In the world of hard fact, every class-movement which
professes to aim at the good of the entire community is stamped
inevitably as self-contradictory. Humanity cannot dispense with
''political classes," but from their very nature these classes are
but fractions of society.

^ The relationships between socialism and industrial bureaucracy were
discussed by the present writer at considerable length in a paper read at
the Italian Congress of the Sciences held at Florence in 1908, Sulla deca-
densa della Classe media industriale antica e sul sorgere di una Classe media
industriale moderna nei Paesi di economia spiccatamente capitalista. This
paper was published in the ' ' Giornale degli Economisti, ' ' vol. xxxvii, Series
2, 1909.

" Cf . Gaetano Mosca, op. cit., p. 75.

PAET ONE

LEADEESHIP IN DEMOCRATIC
ORGANIZATIONS

A. TECHNICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE CAUSES
OF LEADERSHIP

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY—THE NEED FOR ORGANIZATION

Democracy is inconceivable without organization. A few words
will suffice to demonstrate this proposition.^

A class which unfurls in face of society the banner of certain
definite claims, and which aspires to be the realization of a com-
plex of ideal aims deriving from the economic functions which
that class fulfils, needs an organization. Be the claims economic
or be they political, organization appears the only means for the
creation of a collective will. Organization, based as it is upon
the principle of least effort, that is to say, upon the greatest
possible economy of energy, is the weapon of the weak in their
struggle with the strong.^

The chances of success in any struggle will depend upon the
degree to which this struggle is carried out upon a basis of soli-
darity between individuals whose interests are identical. In ob-
jecting, therefore, to the theories of the individualist anarchists
that nothing could please the employers better than the disper-
sion and disaggregation of the forces of the workers, the social-
ists, the most fanatical of all 'the partisans of the idea of or-
ganization, enunciate an argument which harmonizes well with
the results of scientific study of the nature of parties.

We live in a time in which the idea of cooperation has

^ Moreover, the literature of this subject is exhaustive. Here we will
refer merely to the following: Victor Griffuelhes, L' Action syndicaliste,
Eiviere, Paris, 1908, p. 8. Henriette Eoland-Holst, GeneralstreiJc und 80-
cialdemoTcratie, Kaden u. Co., Dresden, 2nd ed., 1906, pp. 114 et seq. Attilio
Cabiati, Le Basi teoriche dell' organissasione operaia, Office of the "Critica
Sociale, ' ' Milan, 1908, p. 19.

^A detailed study of the relations between the various aspects of cooper-
ation and of the law of the minimal expenditure of effort will be found
in an essay by the present writer, L'Uomo economico e la Cooperasione,
Societa, Tip. Editr. Naz., Turin, 1909,

21

22 POLITICAL PARTIES

become so firmly established that even millionaires perceive tHe
necessity of common action. It is easy to understand, tben, that
organization has become a vital principle in the working class,
for in default of it their success is a priori impossible. The
refusal of the worker to participate in the collective life of his
class cannot fail to entail disastrous consequences. In respect of
culture and of economic, physical, and physiological conditions,
the proletarian is the weakest element of our society.^ In fact,
the isolated member of the working classes is defenceless in the
hands of those who are economically stronger. It is only by com-
bination to form a structural aggregate that the proletarians can
acquire the faculty of political resistance and attain to a social
dignity. The importance and the influence of the working class
are directly proportional to its numerical strength. But for the
representation of that numerical strength organization and co-
ordination are indispensable. The principle of organization is
an absolutely essential condition for the political struggle of the
masses.

Yet this politically necessary principle of organization, while
it overcomes that disorganization of forces which would be
favourable to the adversary, brings other dangers in its train.
We escape Scylla only to dash ourselves on Charybdis. Or-
ganization is, in fact, the source from which the conservative
currents flow over the plain of democracy, occasioning there
disastrous floods and rendering the plain unrecognizable.
. ..a..

* The inferiority of the proletarian alike in his anthropological and his
cultural aspects ia displayed by Nicef ore in the work mentioned in a pre-
vious note.

CHAPTER II

MECHANICAL AND TECHNICAL IMPOSSIBILITY OF,
DIRECT GOVERNMENT BY THE MASSES

It was a Rhenish Democrat, Moritz Rittinghausen, who first '^
made a brilliant attempt to give a real basis for direct legislation
by the people.^

According to this system the entire population was to be
divided into sections, each containing a thousand inhabitants, as
was done temporarily for some days in Prussia during the elec-
tions of the years 1848 and 1849. The members of each section
were to assemble in some pre-arranged place — a school, a town-
hall, or other public building — and to elect a president. Every
citizen was to have the right of speech. In this way the intelli-
gence of every individual would be placed at the service of the
fatherland. When the discussion was finished, each one would
record his vote. The president would transmit the result to the
burgomaster, who would notify the higher authorities. The will
of the majority would be decisive.

No legislative proposal was to come from above. The govern-
ment should have no further initiative than to determine that
on a given day all the sections should discuss a given argument.
Whenever a certain number of the citizens demanded a new law
of any kind, or the reform of an existing law, the ministry con-
cerned must invite the people to exercise its sovereignty within a
stated time, and to pass for itself the law in question.^ The law

^ Moritz Eittinghausen, Ueher die Organisation der direJcten Gesetzgebung
durch das Folk, Social. Demokrat. Schriften, No. 4, Coin, 1870, p. 10.
The merit of having for the first time ventured to put forward practical
proposals of this nature for the solution of the social problem unquestion-
ably belongs to Eittinghausen. Victor Considerant, who subsequently re-
sumed the attempt to establish direct popular government upon a wider
basis and with a more far-reaching propagandist effect, expressly recognized
Eittinghausen as his precursor (Victor Considerant, La Solution ou Le
Gouvernement Direct du Peuple. Librairie Phalansterienne, Paris, 1850, p.
61).

' In the American constitution those states only are termed federalist
Xthe name being here used to imply a democratic character) in which the

23

24 POLITICAL PARTIES

takes organic form from the discussion itself. First of all, the
president opens the debate upon the principal question. Subse-
quently subordinate points are discussed. Then comes the vote.
That proposition which has received the majority of votes is
adopted. As soon as all the returns of the voting have been sent
to the ministry, a special commission must edit a clear and simple
text of the law, formulating it in a manner which is not open to
different interpretations, as is the case with most of the laws pre-
sented to modern parliaments, for these, as Rittinghausen sarcas-
tically adds, would seem to incorporate a deliberate intention to
favour the tendency of lawyers to ambiguity and hair-splitting.

The system here sketched is clear and concise, and it might
seem at the first glance that its practical application would
involve no serious difficulties. But if put to the test it would
fail to fulfil the expectations of its creator.

The practical ideal of democracy consists in the self-govern-
ment of the masses in conformity with the decisions of popular
assemblies. But while this system limits the extension of the
principle of delegation, it fails to provide any guarantee against
the formation of an oligarchical camarilla. Undoubtedly it de-
prives the natural leaders of their quality as functionaries, for
this quality is transferred to the people themselves. The crowd,
however, is always subject to suggestion, being readily influenced
by the eloquence of great popular orators ; moreover, direct gov-
ernment by the people, admitting of no serious discussions or
thoughtful deliberations, greatly facilitates coups de main of all
kinds by men who are exceptionally bold, energetic, and adroit.^

It is easier to dominate a large crowd than a small audience.
The adhesion of the crowd is tumultuous, summary, and uncon-
ditional. Once the suggestions have taken effect, the crowd does
not readily tolerate contradiction from a small minority, and still
less from isolated individuals. A great multitude assembled
within a small area is unquestionably more accessible to panic

people assemble for such a legislative purpose, whilst the states with rep-
resentative popular government are called republics,

^It often happens that by such a coup de main one leader will surprise
and defeat the other. Thus Arturo Labriola, the well-known leader of the
Italian syndicalists, during the general strike of 1904 at Milan induced
the great meeting in the Arena to vote for the continuation of the strike,
securing this by the sole power of his inflammatory eloquence, and in
opposition to the desire of the representatives of the local labour organi-
zations. (J Gruppi Socialisti Milanesi al Congresso Socialista Nasionale
di Boma, October 7-9, 1906. Gruppi Socialisti, Milan, p. 11.)

GOVERNMENT BY THE MASSES 25

alarms, to unreflective enthusiasm, and tlie like, than is a small
meeting, whose members can quietly discuss matters among them-
selves (Roscher).*

It is a fact of everyday experience that enormous public meet-
ings commonly carry resolutions by acclamation or by general
assent, whilst these same assemblies, if divided into small sec-
tions, say of fifty persons each, would be much more guarded in
their assent. Great party congresses, in which are present the
elite of the membership, usually act in this way. "Words and
actions are far less deliberately weighed by the crowd than by
the individuals or the little groups of which this crowd is com-
posed. The fact is incontestable — a manifestation of the pathol-
ogy of the crowd.^ The individual disappears in the multitude,
and therewith disappears also personality and sense of responsi-
bility.^

The most formidable argument against the sovereignty of the
masses is, however, derived from the mechanical and technical
impossibility of its realization.

The sovereign masses are altogether incapable of undertaking
the most necessary resolutions. The impotence of direct democ-
racy, like the power of indirect democracy, is a direct outcome
of the influence of number. In a polemic against Proudhon
(1849), Louis Blanc asks whether it is possible for thirty-four
millions of human beings (the population of France at that
time) to carry on their affairs without accepting what the pettiest
man of business finds necessary, the intermediation of representa-
tives. He answers his own question by saying that one who
declares direct action on this scale to be possible is a fool, and

*Eoseher, op. cit., p. 358.

^ This matter has been luminously discussed by French and Italian soci-
ologists. Cf. Gabriel Tarde, Les crimes des foules, Storck, Lyons, 1892;
Scipio Sighele, I delitti della folia, Fratelli Bocea, Turin, 1902. See also a
discussion of the same question conducted with especial reference to the
Chamber of Deputies, Scipio, Sighele, Contro il parlamentarismo. Saggio
di psicologia collettiva, Treves, Milan, 1905.

® ' ' It seems that the simple fact of aggregation brings out the sheeplike
character of human beings, for wherever we observe great assemblies,
■\*'hether in public meetings or in parliament, whether we have to do with
Ehareholders ' meetings, corporate meetings, or university convocations, we
everywhere find that the majority is content to accept the leadership of
single individuals, acting no longer in accordance with its own convictions,
but enslaved by the phrases employed by the leaders" (Ludwig Gumplowicz,
op. cit., p. 124).

26 POLITICAL PARTIES

that one who denies its possibility need not be an absolute oppo-
nent of the idea of the state.'^ The same question and the same
answer could be repeated to-day in respect of party organization.
Above all in the great industrial centres, where the labour party
sometimes numbers its adherents by tens of thousands, it is im-
possible to carry on the affairs of this gigantic body without a
system of representation. The great socialist organization of
Berlin, which embraces the six constituencies of the city, as well
,as the two outlying areas of Niederbarnim and Teltow-Beeskow-
Charlottenburg, has a member-roll of more than ninety thou-
sand.®

It is obvious that such a gigantic number of persons belonging
to a unitary organization cannot do any practical work upon a
system of direct discussion.'' The regular holding of deliberative
assemblies of a thousand members encounters the gravest difficul-
ties in respect of room and distance ; ^° while from the topo-
graphical point of view such an assembly would become alto-
gether impossible if the members numbered ten thousand. Even
if we imagined the means of communication to become much
better than those which now exist, how would it be possible to
assemble such a multitude in a given place, at a stated time,
and with the frequency demanded by the exigencies of party
life? In addition must be considered the physiological impossi-
bility even for the most powerful orator of making himself heard

'Louis Blanc, "L'etat dans une democratie," Questions d'aujourd'hui
et de demain, Dentu, Paris, 1880, vol. iii, p. 150.

^Eduard Bernstein, Die Demokratie in der SosialdemoTcratie, "Sozialist.
Monatshef te, " 1908, fasc. 18-19, p. 1109.

^ ' ' Quieonque voudrait appliquer a une societe nombreuse le premier prin-
cipe (celui de faire concourir les individus a la formation des lois par eux-
memes), sans employer 1 'intermediare, la bouleverserait inf ailliblement "
(Benjamin Constant, Cours de politique eonstitutionnelle, Societe Typ.
Beige, Brussels, 1851, vol. iii, p. 246).

^° Especially in northern climes, where the weather makes it impossible
to hold open-air meetings for the greater part of the year, and yet it is in
these very regions that political life attains its highest development. In
some countries, again, as in Germany, the reactionary governments are most
unwilling to concede to the populace the right of public meeting in the
open air, and the use of the theatres for political purposes (as in Italy),
or of the town halls (as in England), is forbidden. Bernstein is therefore
right when he says that in most towns it would be impossible, owing to the
absence of a sufficiently large hall, to unite in a general assembly even a
considerable proportion of the members of a party or society (Eduard
Bernstein, Bie Arheiteriewegung, Kiitten u. Loaning, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, 1910, p. 151).

GOVERA^MENT BY THE MASSES 27

by a crowd of ten thousand persons.^^ There are, however, other
reasons of a technical and administrative character which render
impossible the direct self-government of large groups. If Peter
wrongs Paul, it is out of the question that all the other citizens
should hasten to the spot to undertake a personal examination
of the matter in dispute, and to take the part of Paul against
Peter.^2 By parity of reasoning, in the modern democratic
party, it is impossible for the collectivity to undertake the direct
settlement of all the controversies that may arise.

Hence the need for delegation, for the system in which dele-
gates represent the mass and carry out its will. Even in groups
sincerely animated with the democratic spirit, current business,
the preparation and the carrying out of the most important
actions, is necessarily left in the hands of individuals. It is
well known that the impossibility for the people to exercise a
legislative power directly in popular assemblies led the demo-
cratic idealists of Spain to demand, as the least of evils, a sys-
tem of popular representation and a parliamentary state.^^

Originally the chief is merely the servant of the mass. The
organization is based upon the absolute equality of all its mem-
bers. Equality is here understood in its most general sense, as
an equality of like men. In many countries, as in idealist Italy
(and in certain regions in Germany where the socialist move-
ment is still in its infancy), this equality is manifested, among
other ways, by the mutual use of the familiar ' ' thou, ' ' which is
employed by the most poorly paid wage-labourer in addressing
the most distinguished intellectual. This generic conception of
equality is, however, gradually replaced by the idea of equality
among comrades belonging to the same organization, all of whose
members enjoy the same rights. The democratic principle aims
at guaranteeing to all an equal influence and an equal participa-
tion in the regulation of the common interests. All are electors,
and all are eligible for office. The fundamental postulate of the
Declaration des Droits de V Homme finds here its theoretical
application. All the offices are filled by election. The officials,
executive organs of the general will, play a merely subordinate
part, are always dependent upon the collectivity, and can be

"Eoscher, op. cit., p. 351.

" Louis Blanc, op. cit., p. 144.

" Cf . the letter of Antonio Quiroga to King Ferdinand VII, dated Janu'
ary 7, 1820 (Don Juan van Halen, Memoires, Eenouard, Paris, 1827, Part
II, p. 382).

28 POLITICAL PARTIES

deprived of their office at any moment. The mass of the party
is omnipotent.

At the outset, the attempt is made to depart as little as possible
from pure democracy hy subordinating the delegates altogether
to the will of the mass, by tying them hand and foot. In the
early days of the movement of the Italian agricultural workers,
the chief of the league required a majority of four-fifths of the
votes to secure election. When disputes arose with the employers
about wages, the representative of the organization, before under-
taking any negotiations, had to be furnished with a written
authority, authorized by the signature of every member of the
corporation. All the accounts of the body were open to the
examination of the members, at any time. There were two rea-
sons for this. First of all, the desire was to avoid the spread of
mistrust through the mass, ''this poison which gradually destroys
even the strongest organism." In the second place, this usage
allowed each one of the members to learn bookkeeping, and to
acquire such a general knowledge of the working of the corpora-
tion as to enable him at any time to take over its leadership.^*
It is obvious that democracy in this sense is applicable only on
a very small scale. In the infancy of the English labour move-
ment, in many of the trade-unions, the delegates were either ap-
pointed in rotation from among all the members, or were chosen
by lot.^^ Gradually, however, the delegates' duties become more
complicated ; some individual ability becomes essential, a certain
oratorical gift, and a considerable amount of objective knowl-
edge. It thus becomes impossible to trust to blind chance, to the
fortune of alphabetic succession, or to the order of priority, in the
choice of a delegation whose members must possess certain pecul-
iar personal aptitudes if they are to discharge their mission to
the general advantage.

Such were the methods which prevailed in the early days of
the labour movement to enable the masses to participate in
party and trade-union administration. To-day they are falling
into disuse, and in the development of the modern political
aggregate there is a tendency to shorten and stereotype the
process which transforms the led into a leader — a process which
has hitherto developed by the natural course of events. Here

"Egidio Bernaroli, Manuale per la costitusione e il funsionamento delle
leghe del contadini, Libreria Soc. Ital., Eome, 1902, pp. 20, 26, 27, 52.

^^ Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Industrial Democracy (German edition),
Stuttgart, 1898, vol. i, p. 6.

GOVERNMENT BY THE MASSES 29

and there voices make themselves heard demanding a sort of
ofScial consecration for the leaders, insisting that it is necessary
to constitute a class of professional politicians, of approved and
registered experts in political life. Ferdinand Tonnies advo-
cates that the party should institute regular examinations for the
nomination of socialist parliamentary candidates, and for the
appointment of party secretaries.^^ Heinrich Herkner goes even
farther. He contends that the great trade-unions cannot long
maintain their existence if they persist in entrusting the manage-
ment of their affairs to persons drawn from the rank and file,
who have risen to command stage by stage solely in consequence
of practical aptitudes acquired in the service of the organization.
He refers, in this connection, to the unions that are controlled
by the employers, whose officials are for the most part university
men. He foresees that in the near future all the labour or-
ganizations will be forced to abandon proletarian exclusiveness,
and in the choice of their officials to give the preference to per-
sons of an education that is superior alike in economic, legal,
technical, and commercial respects.^''

Even to-day, the candidates for the secretaryship of a trade-
union are subject to examination as to their knowledge of legal
matters and their capacity as letter-writers. The socialist or-
ganizations engaged in political action also directly undertake
the training of their own officials. Everywhere there are coming
into existence "nurseries" for the rapid supply of officials pos-
sessing a certain amount of "scientific culture." Since 1906
there has existed in Berlin a Party-School in which courses of
instruction are given for the training of those who wish to take
office in the socialist party or in the trade-unions. The instruc-
tors are paid out of the funds of the socialist party, which was
directly responsible for the foundation of the school. The
other expenses of the undertaking, including the maintenance of
the pupils, are furnished from a common fund supplied by the
party and the various trade-unions interested. In addition, the
families of the pupils, in so far as the attendance of these at
the school deprives the families of their bread-winners, receive
an allowance from the provincial branch of the party or from
the local branch of the union to which each pupil belongs. The

'^ Ferdinand Tonnies, Politik und Moral, Neuer Frankf . Verl., Frankfort,
1901, p. 46.

" Heinrich Herkner, Die Arbeiterfrage, Guttentag, Berlin, 1908, 5th ed.,
pp. 116, 117.

30 POLITICAL PARTIES

third course of this school, from October 1, 1908, to April 3, 1909,
was attended by twenty-six pupils, while the first year there had
been thirty-one and the second year thirty-three. As pupils,
preference is given to comrades who already hold office in the
party or in one of the labour unions.^* Those who do not already
belong to the labour bureaucracy make it their aim to enter that
body, and cherish the secret hope that attendance at the school
will smooth their path. Those who fail to attain this end are
apt to exhibit a certain discontent with the party which, after
having encouraged their studies, has sent them back to manual
labour. Among the 141 students of the year 1910-11, three
classes were to be distinguished: one of these consisted of old
and tried employees in the different branches of the labour move-
ment (fifty-two persons) ; a second consisted of those who ob-
tained employment in the party or the trade-unions directly the
course was finished (forty-nine persons) ; the third consisted of
those who had to return to manual labour (forty persons ).^^

In Italy, L'TJvnardtaria, a philanthropic organization run by
the socialists, founded at Milan in 1905 a "Practical School of
Social Legislation," whose aim it is to give to a certain number
of workers an education which will fit them for becoming factory
inspectors, or for taking official positions in the various labour
organizations, in the friendly societies, or in the labour ex-
changes.^*^ The course of instruction lasts for two years, and at
its close the pupils receive, after examination, a diploma which
entitles them to the title of ''Labour Expert." In 1908 there
were two hundred and two pupils, thirty-seven of whom were
employees of trade unions or of co-operative societies, four were
secretaries of labour exchanges, forty-five employees in or mem-
bers of the liberal professions, and a hundred and twelve working
men.^^ At the outset most of the pupils came to the school as a
matter of personal taste, or with the aim of obtaining the
diploma in order to secure some comparatively lucrative private
employment. But quite recently the governing body has deter-
mined to suppress the diploma, and to institute a supplementary

^^ ProtoTcoll des Parteitags su Leipzig, 1909, "Vorwarts, " Berlin, 1909,
p. 48.

^^Heinrich Schiilz, Fiinf Jahre Parteischule, "Neue Zeit, " Anno xxix,
vol. ii, fase. 49, p. 807.

'^'^Scuola Prat, di Legislaz. Sociale (Programma e Norme), anno iii, See.
Umanitaria, Milan, 1908.

"^ Ibid., anno iv, Milan, 1909, p. 5.

GOVERNMENT BY THE MASSES 31

course open to those only who are already employed by some
labour organization or who definitely intend to enter such em-
ployment. For those engaged upon this special course of study
there will be provided scholarships of £2 a week, the funds for
this purpose being supplied in part by L'Umanitaria and in part
by the labour organizations which wish to send their employees
to the school.^^ In the year 1909, under the auspices of the
Bourse du Travail, there was founded at Turin a similar school
(Scuola Pratica di Cultura e Legislazione Sociale), which, how-
ever, soon succumbed.

In England the trade-unions and co-operative societies make
use of Ruskin College, Oxford, sending thither those of their
members who aspire to office in the labour organizations, and
who have displayed special aptitudes for this career.^^ In Aus-
tria it is proposed to found a party school upon the German
model.2*

It is undeniable that all these educational institutions for the
officials of the party and of the labour organizations tend, above
all, towards the artificial creation of an elite of the working-
class, of a caste of cadets composed of persons who aspire to the
command of the proletarian rank and file. Without wishing
it, there is thus effected a continuous enlargement of the gulf
which divides the leaders from the masses.

The technical specialization that inevitably results from all
extensive organization renders necessary what is called expert
leadership. Consequently the power of determination comes to
be considered one of the specific attributes of leadership, and is
gradually withdrawn from the masses to be concentrated in the
hands of the leaders alone.^^ Thus the leaders, who were at first

^^Einaldo Eigola, I funsionari delle organizsazioni, "Avanti, " anno xiv,
No. 341.

^See the admirable description given by Lily Braun in her Londoner
Tagebucli, "Neue Gesellschaf t, " anno ii, fase. xxix, 1906. — More recently,
in England, another body with similar objects to Euskin College, but more
definitely socialist in tendency, has come into existence, and is known as the
Central Labour College. It was founded in Oxford in 1909, to some extent
in opposition to Euskin College, since the education given at this latter was
regarded as being unduly influenced by the Oxford outlook, by the views
of the dominant class. The Central Labour College insists on the labour
point of view in all its educational work. Owing to the opposition of the
University landowners it was removed to London in 1911.

^Otto Bauer, Eine Parteischule fiir Oesterreich, *'Der Kampf," Vienna,
anno iii. fasc. 4.

** " In intimate connection with these theoretical tendencies, there results

32 POLITICAL PARTIES

no more than the executive organs of the collective will, soon
emancipate themselves from the mass and become independent
of its control.

Organization implies the tendency to oligarchy. In every or-
ganization, whether it be a political party, a professional union,
or any other association of the kind, the aristocratic tendency
manifests itself very clearly. The mechanism of the organiza-
tion, while conferring a solidity of structure, induces serious
changes in the organized mass, completely inverting the respec-
tive position of the leaders and the led. As a result of organiza-
tion, every party or professional union becomes divided into aJ
minority of directors and a majority of directed.

It has been remarked that in the lower stages of civilization
tyranny is dominant. Democracy cannot come into existence
until there is attained a subsequent and more highly developed
stage of social life. Freedoms and privileges, and among these
latter the privilege of taking part in the direction of public

a change in the relationship between the leaders and the mass. For the
comradely leadership of local committees with all its undeniable defects
there is substituted the professional leadership of the trade-union ofl&cials.
Initiative and capacity for decision thus become what may be called a pro-
fessional speciality, whilst for the rank and fQe is left the passive virtue of
discipline. There can be no doubt that this seamy side of officialism involves
serious dangers for the party. The latest innovation in this direction, in
the German social democratic party, is the appointment of salaried secre-
taries to the local branches. Unless the rank and file of the party keep
very much on the alert, unless they are careful that these secretaries shall
be restricted to purely executive functions, the secretaries will come to be
regarded as the natural and sole depositaries of all power of initiative, and
as the exclusive leaders of local party life. In the socialist party, however,
by the nature of things, by the very character of the political struggle,
narrower limits are imposed upon bureaucracy than in the case of the trade-
unions. In these latter, the technical specialization of the wage-struggle
(the need, for example, for the drafting of complicated sliding scales and
the like) often leads the chiefs to deny that the mass of organized workers
can possess "a general view of the economic life of the country as a
whole," and to deny, therefore, their capacity of judgment in such matters.
The most typical outcome of this conception is afforded by the argument
with which the leaders are accustomed to forbid all theoretical criticism of
the prospects and possibilities of practical trade-unionism, asserting that
such criticism involves a danger for the spirit of organization. This reason-
ing starts from the assumption that the workers can be won for organization
and can be induced to remain faithful to their trade-unions only by a blind
and artless belief in the saving efficacy of the trade-union struggle ' ' (Eosa
Luxemburg, Massenstreih, Partei u. GewerTcschaften, Erdmann Dubber,
Hamburg, 1906, p. 61).

GOVERNMENT BY THE MASSES 33

affairs, are at first restricted to tlie few. Eeeent times have
been characterized by the gradual extension of these privileges
to a vridening circle. This is what we know as the era of
democracy. But if we pass from the sphere of the state to the
sphere of party, we may observe that as democracy continues to
develop, a backwash sets in. With the advance of organization,
democracy tends to decline. Democratic evolution has a para-
bolic course. At the present time, at any rate as far as party
life is concerned, democracy is in the descending phase. It may
be enunciated as a general rule that the increase in the power
of the leaders is directly proportional with the extension of the
organization. In the various parties and labour organizations
of different countries the influence of the leaders is mainly deter-
mined (apart from racial and individual grounds) by the vary-
ing development of organization. Where organization is stronger,
w^ find that there is a lesser degree of applied democracy.

Every solidly constructed organization, whether it be a demo-
cratic state, a political party, or a league of proletarians for the
resistance of economic oppression, presents a soil eminently
favourable for the differentiation of organs and of functions.
The more extended and the more ramified the official apparatus
of the organization, the greater the number of its members, the
fuller its treasury, and the more widely circulated its press, the
less efficient becomes the direct control exercised by the rank and
file, and the more is this control replaced by the increasing
power of committees.^® Into all parties there insinuates itself
that indirect electoral system which in public life the democratic
parties fight against with all possible vigour. Yet in party life
the influence of this system must be more disastrous than in the
far more extensive life of the state. Even in the party con-
gresses, which represent the party-life seven times sifted, we
find that it becomes more and more general to refer all important
questions to committees which debate in camera.

As organization develops, not only do the tasks of the admin-
istration become more difficult and more complicated, but, fur-
ther, its duties become enlarged and specialized to such a degree
that it is no longer possible to take them all in at a single glance.

^ ' ' Here we see the beginning of a danger which is imminent in all popu-
lar administration, namely, that in place of true democracy there should
develop an omnipotent influence of committees" ("Wolfgang Heine, Demo-
Tcratische BandbemerTcungen sum Fall GoJire, " Sozialistische Monatshef te, "
viii (x), fasc. 4, p. 254).

34 POLITICAL PARTIES

In a rapidly progressive movement, it is not only the growth in
the number of duties, but also the higher quality of these, which
imposes a more extensive differentiation of function. Nominally,
land according to the letter of the rules, iall the acts of the leaders
are subject to the ever vigilant criticism of the rank and file.
In theory the leader is merely an employee bound by the instruc-
tions he receives. He has to carry out the orders of the mass,
of which he is no more than the executive organ. But in actual
fact, as the organization increases in size, this control becomes
purely fictitious. The members have to give up the idea of them-
selves conducting or even supervising the whole administration,
and are compelled to hand these tasks over to trustworthy persons
specially nominated for the purpose, to salaried officials. The
rank and file must content themselves with summary reports, and
with the appointment of occasional special committees of inquiry.
Yet this does not derive from any special change in the rules of
the organization. It is by very necessity that a simple employee
gradually becomes a "leader," acquiring a freedom of action
which he ought not to possess. The chief then becomes accus-
tomed to despatch important business on his own responsibility,
and to decide various questions relating to the life of the party
without any attempt to consult the rank and file. It is obvious
that democratic control thus undergoes a progressive diminution,
and is ultimately reduced to an infinitesimal minimum. In all
the socialist parties there is a continual increase in the number
of functions withdrawn from the electoral assemblies and trans-
ferred to the executive committees. In this way there is con-
structed a powerful and complicated edifice. The principle of
division of labour coming more and more into operation, execu-
tive authority undergoes division and subdivision. There is thus
constituted a rigorously defined and hierarchical bureaucracy.^'^
In the catechism of party duties, the strict observance of hierar-

^ Achille Loria has drawn attention to the numerous resemblances be-
tween administrative hierarchy and economic. The chief point of resem-
blance is found, according to him, in the echeloned pyramidal structure of
both. He writes: "Just as in the executive we have a limited number of
chiefs commanding a larger number of sub-chiefs, and these a still larger
number of subordinates, down to the lowest employees who exhibit the
maximum numerical density, in the same way a small handful of the great-
est recipients of income rules a larger number of less wealthy recipients of
income, these rule a still greater number of recipients of more modest in-
comes, and so on down to the incomes of the lowest degree, which are the
most numerous" (Achille Loria, La Sintesi economica, Bocca, Turin, 1909,

GOVERNMENT BY THE MASSES 35

chical rules becomes the first article. This hierarchy comes into
existence as the outcome of technical conditions, and its constitu-
tion is an essential postulate of the regular functioning of the
party machine.

>/ It is indisputable that the oligarchical and bureaucratic ten-
dency of party organization is a matter of technical and practical
necessity. It is the inevitable product of the very principle of
organization. Not even the most radical wing of the various
socialist parties raises any objection to this retrogressive evolu-
tion, the contention being that democracy is only a form of
organization and that where it ceases to be possible to harmonize
democracy with organization, it is better to abandon the former
than the latter. Organization, since it is the only means of at-
taining the ends of socialism, is considered to comprise within
itself the revolutionary content of the party, and this essential
content must never be sacrificed for the sake of form.^^

In all times, in all phases of development, in all branches
of human activity, there have been leaders.^^ It is true that cer-
tain socialists, above all the orthodox Marxists of Germany, seek
to convince us that socialism knows nothing of "leaders," that
the party has "employees" merely, being a democratic party,
and the existence of leaders being incompatible with democracy.
But a false assertion such as this cannot override a sociological
law. Its only result is, in fact, to strengthen the rule of the
leaders, for it serves to conceal from the mass a danger which
really threatens democracy.

For technical and administrative reasons, no less than for

p. 348. — Eng. trans., The Economic Synthesis, Allen, London, 1914, p. 317).
Loria might have added that the two species of hierarchy differ in respect
of their apices, for one terminates in a point, being dynastic, while in the
other the apex is truncated, the hierarchy being plutocratic. The adminis-
tration of political parties does not come into the scope of Loria 's consid-
erations. As far as the pyramid of the party hierarchy is concerned, its
apex is certainly less conspicuously pointed than that of a monarchical
regime, but none the less in the political party the administration is in the
hands of chiefs whose number is comparatively restricted, so that the apex
of this pyramid is more acute than that of the pyramid which represents
the hierarchy of economic powers in a country far advanced in capitalist
development.

** Cf . Hans Block, TJeherspannwng der BemoTcratie, ' ' Neue Zeit, ' ' xxvi. No.
8, pp. 264 et seq.

"Eben Mumford (The Origins of Leadership, University Press, Chicago,
1909, pp. 1-12) has developed this thesis especially in relation to primitive
times.

36 POLITICAL PARTIES

tactical reasons, a strong organization needs an equally strong
leadership. As long as an organization is loosely constructed and
vague in its outlines, no professional leadership can arise. The
anarchists, who have a horror of all fixed organization, have no
regular leaders. In the early days of German socialism, the
Vertrauensmann (homme de confiance) continued to exercise his
ordinary occupation. If he received any pay for his work for
the party, the remuneration was on an extremely modest scale,
and was no more than a temporary grant. His function could
never he regarded hy him as a regular source of income. The
employee of the organization was still a simple workmate, sharing
the mode of life and the social condition of his fellows.^'' To-day
he has been replaced for the most part by the professional
politician, Berzirksleiter (U.S. ward-boss), etc. The more solid
the structure of an organization becomes in the course of the
evolution of the modern political party, the more marked be-
comes the tendency to replace the emergency leader by the pro-
fessional leader. Every party organization which has attained
to a considerable degree of complication demands that there
should be a certain number of persons who devote all their
activities to the work of the party. The mass provides these by
delegation, and the delegates, regularly appointed, become per-
manent representatives of the mass for the direction of its affairs.
V' For democracy, however, the first appearance of professional
leadership marks the beginning of the end, and this, above all, on
account of the logical impossibility of the "representative" sys-
tem, whether in parliamentary life or in party delegation. Jean
Jacques Rousseau may be considered as the founder of this
aspect of the criticism of democracy. He defines popular govern-
ment as ''I'exercice de la volonte generale," and draws from this
the logical inference, "elle ne pent jamais s'aliener, et le
souverain, qui n'est qu'un etre collectif, ne pent etre represente
que par lui-meme." Consequently, *'a I'instant qu'un peuple se
donne des representants, il n'est plus libre, il n'est plus." ^^ A
mass which delegates its sovereignty, that is to say transfers its
sovereignty to the hands of a few individuals, abdicates its sov-

"' Cf . Eduard Bernsteiti, Die Arheiterhewegung, Eutten u. Loening, Frank-
fort-on-tbe-Main, 1910, p. 141. For the historical counterpart that is of-
fered by the evolution of officialdom within the state, cf. Gustav Schmoller,
Umrisse u. V titer suchung en zur Verfassungs- Veriualtungs- u. Wirtscliafisge-
scMchte, Dunker u. Humblot, Leipzig, 1898, p. 291.

®^Jean Jacques Eousseau, Le Contrat social (lib. cit., pp. 40 et seq.).

GOVERNMENT BY THE MASSES 37

ereign functions.^^ For the will of the people is not transferable,
nor even the will of the single individual. However much in
practice, during the confused years of the Terror, the doctrine
was abandoned by the disciples of the philosopher of Geneva, it
was at this time in theory universally admitted as incontro-
vertible. Kobespierre himself accepted it, making a subtle dis-
tinction between the " representant du peuple," who has no
right to exist, "parce que la volonte ne pent se representer, " and
"le mandataire du peuple, a qui le peuple a donne la premiere
puissance. ' '

The experience of attentive observers of the working of the
first attempts at a representative system, contributed to estab-
lish more firmly the theory of the limits of democracy. Towards
the middle of the nineteenth century this theory, the outcome of
an empirical psychology, was notably enlarged, its claim to
general validity was sustained, and it was formulated as the
basis of definite rules and precepts. Carlo Pisacane, the theorist,
too soon forgotten, of the national and social revolution in Italy,
expounds in his Saggio sulla Kivoluzione how the men in whose
hands supreme political power is placed must, from their very
nature as human beings, be subject to passions and to the phy-
sical and mental imperfections therefrom resulting. For this
reason the tendency and the acts of their rule are in direct con-
trast with the tendency and the acts of the mass, ' ' for the latter
represent the mean of all individual judgments and determina-
tions, and are therefore free from the operation of such influ-
ences. ' ' To maintain of a government that it represents public
opinion and the will of the nation is simply to mistake a part
for the whole.^^ He thus considers delegation to be an absurdity.
Victor Considerant, a contemporary of Pisacane and the repre-
sentative of a similar tendency, also followed in the tracks of
Rousseau: ''Si le peuple delegue sa souverainete, il I'abdique.
Le peuple ne se gouverne plus lui-meme, on le gouverne. . . .
Peuple, delegue done ta souverainete ! Cela fait, je te garantis,
a ta souverainete le sort inverse de celui de Saturne : ta souve-
rainete sera devoree par la Delegation, ta fille."^* The theorists

'^ Quite recently some of the most notable of the revisionists have come
to hold this opinion. Cf., for example, Eugene Fourniere, La Sociocratie.
Essai de Politique positive, Giard et Briere, Paris, 1910, pp. 98 et seq.

« Carlo Pisacane, Saggio sulla Sivolusione, with a preface by Napoleone
Colajanni, Lib. Treves di Pietro Virano, Bologna, 1894, pp. 121-5.

** Victor Considerant, op. cit., pp. 13-15.

38 POLITICAL PARTIES

of democracy are never tired of asserting that, when voting, the
people is at one and the same time exercising its sovereignty and
renouncing it. The great democrat Ledru-Rollin, the father of
universal and equal suffrage in France, goes so far as to demand
the suppression of president and parliament^ and the recognition
of the general assembly of the people as the sole legislative organ.
If people^ he continues, find it possible in the course of the year
to waste so much time upon public entertainments, holidays, and
loafing, they could surely make a better use of their time by de-
voting it " a cimenter son independance, sa grandeur et sa pros-
perite. " ^^

Victor Considerant fiercely opposed the theory that popular
sovereignty is guaranteed by the representative system. Even
if we make the theoretical admission that in ahstracto parlia-
mentary government does indeed embody government by the
masses, in practical life it is nothing but a continuous fraud on
the part of the dominant class. Under representative govern-
ment the difference between democracy and monarchy, which
are both rooted in the representative system, is altogether insig-
nificant— a difference not in substance but in form. The sover-
eign people elects, in place of a king, a number of kinglets. Not
possessing sufficient freedom and independence to direct the life
of the state, it tamely allows itself to be despoiled of its funda-
mental right. The one right which the people reserves is the
" climaterique et derisoire" privilege of choosing from time to
time a new set of masters.^® To this criticism of the representa-
tive system may be appended the remark of Proudhon, to the
effect that the representatives of the people have no sooner been
raised to power than they set to work to consolidate and rein-
force their influence. They continue unceasingly to surround
their positions by new lines of defence, until they have succeeded
in emancipating themselves completely from popular control.
All power thus proceeds in a natural cycle: issuing from the
people, it ends by raising itself above the people.^'^ In the forties
of the last century these ideas were widely diffused and their
truth was almost universally admitted, and in France more par-
ticularly by students of social science and by democratic states-

^'^ A. A. Ledru-EoUin, Pliis de President, 'plus de Sepresentants, ed. de
"La Voix du Proscrit," Paris, 1851, 2nd ed., p. 7.

^° Victor Considerant, op. cit., pp. 11-12.

^' Cf . P. J. Proudhon, Les Confessions d'un Bevolutionnaire. Pour servir
a la devolution de Fevrier, Verboeckhoven, Paris, 1868, new ed., p. 286.

GOVERNMENT BY THE MASSES 39

men. Even the clericals mingled their voices with those which
condemned the representative system. Louis Veuillot, the
Catholic, said: "Quand j'ai vote, mon egalite tombe dans la
boite avec mon bulletin ; ils disparaissent ensemble. ' ' ^^ To-day
this theory is the central feature of the political criticism of the
various schools of anarchists, who often expound it eloquently
and acutely .^'^ Finally Marx and his followers, who in theory
regard parliamentary action as but one weapon among many,
but who in practice employ this weapon alone, do not fail to rec-
ognize incidentally the perils of the representative system, even
when based upon universal suffrage. But the Marxists hasten
to add that the socialist party is quite free from these dangers.^''
Popular sovereignty has recently been subjected to a profound
criticism by a group of Italian writers conservative in their
tendency. Gaetano IMosca speaks of "the falsity of the parlia-
mentary legend." He says that the idea of popular represen-
tation as a free and spontaneous transference of the sovereignty
of the electors (collectivity) to a certain number of elected per-
sons (minority) is based upon the absurd premise that the mi-
nority can be bound to the collective will by unbreakable bonds.*^
In actual fact, directly the election is finished, the power of the
mass of electors over the delegate comes to an end. The deputy
regards himself as authorized arbiter of the situation, and really
is such. If among the electors any are to be found who possess
some influence over the representative of the people, their num-
ber is very small ; they are the big guns of the constituency or of
the local branch of the party. In other words, they are persons
who, whilst belonging by social position to the class of the ruled,
have in fact come to form part of the ruling oligarchy .*-

^ Louis Veuillot, Qa et Id, Caume Freres et Duprey, Paris, 1860, 2nd ed.,
vol. i, p. 368.

^^Cf., for example, Enrico Malatesta in two pamphlets: L'anarcJiia (Casa
ed. Pensiero, Eome, 6tli ed., 1907), and La Politica parlamentare del Partito
sociaJista (ediz. dell' "Allarme," Turin, 1903). Cf. also Ferdinand Do-
mela Nieuwenhuis, Eet Parlamentarisme in sijn Wezen en Toepassing, W.
Sligting, Amsterdam, 1906, pp. 149 et seq.

*" Cf . Karl Kautsky, Eosa Luxemburg, and others. In the works of Karl
Marx we find traces here and there of a theoretical mistrust of the repre-
sentative system; see especially this writer's Revolution u. Kontre-Bevolu-
tion in DeutscJiland, Dietz, Stuttgart, 1896, p. 107.

*^ Cf . Gaetano Mosca, Questio7ii pratiche di Diritto costitusionale, Fra-
teUi Bocca, Turin, 1898, pp. 81 et seq. Also Sulla Teorica dei Governi e
sul Governo parlamentare, Loescher, Eome, 1884, pp. 120 et seq.

" ' ' An electional system simply places power in the hands of the most

^0 POLITICAL PARTIES

This criticism of the representative system is applicable above
all in our own days, in which political life continually assumes
more complex forms. As this complexity increases, it becomes
more and more absurd to attempt to "represent" a heterogene-
ous mass in all the innumerable problems which arise out of the
increasing differentiation of our political and economic life. To
represent, in this sense, comes to mean that the purely individual
desire masquerades and is accepted as the will of the mass.*^
In certain isolated cases, where the questions involved are ex-
tremely simple, and where the delegated authority is of brief
duration, representation is possible. But permanent representa-
tion will always be tantamount to the exercise of dominion by
the representatives over the represented.

skilful electioneers" (H. G. Wells, Anticipations of the Eeaction of Me-
chanical and Scientific Progress upon Human Life and Thought, Chapman
and Hall, London, 1904, p. 58). Of course, this applies only to countries
with a republican-democratic constitution.

*^ Fouillee writes aptly in this connection : " Si j 'use personnellement de
mon droit civil d'aller et de venir pour me rendre de Marseille a Paris,
je ne vous empeche pas, vous, d'aller de Paris a Marseille; I'exercice de ma
liberte civile ne vous enleve rien de la votre. Mais, quand j 'envoie a la
Chambre un depute qui appliquera a vos depens des mesures centre les-
quellea vous avez tou jours proteste, cette iaqon de me gouverner implique
une fagon de vous gouverner qui vous est penible et qui pent etre in juste.
Le droit civil est une liberte pour soi et sur soi; le droit politique est un
droit sur autrui et sur le tout en meme temps que sur moi-meme" (Alfred
Fouillee, Erreurs sociologiques et morales de la Sociologie, * * Eevue des deux
Mondes," Uv, p. 330).

CHAPTER III

THE MODERN DEMOCRATIC PARTY AS A FIGHTING
PARTY, DOMINATED BY MILITARIST IDEAS AND
METHODS

'*
Louis XIV understood the art of government as have few princes
either before or since, and this was the case above all in the first
half of his reign, when his spirit was still young and fresh. In
his memoirs of the year 1666, he lays down for every branch
of the administration, and more especially for the conduct of
military affairs, the following essential rules: "que les resolu-
tions doivent etre promptes, la discipline exact, les commande-
ments absolus, I'obeissance ponctuelle."^ The essentials thus
enumerated by the B,oi Soleil (promptness of decision, unity of
command, and strictness of discipline) are equally applicable,
mutaiis mutandis, to the various aggregates of modern political
life, for these are in a perpetual condition of latent warfare.

The modern party is a fighting organization in the political
sense of the term, and must as such conform to the laws of tac-
tics. Now the first article of these laws is facility of mobiliza-
tion. Ferdinand Lassalle, the founder of a revolutionary labour
party, recognized this long ago, contending that the dictatorship
which existed in fact in the society over which he presided was
as thoroughly justified in theory as it was indispensable in prac-
tice. The rank and file, he said, must follow their chief blindly,
and the whole organization must be like a hammer in the hands
of its president.

This view of the matter was in correspondence with political
necessity, especially in Lassalle 's day, when the labour move-
ment was in its infancy, and when it was only by a rigorous
discipline that this movement could hope to obtain respect and
consideration from the bourgeois parties. Centralization guar-
anteed, and always guarantees, the rapid formation of resolu-
tions. An extensive organization is per se a heavy piece of

^Memoires de Louis XIV pour V instruction du Dauphin, annotees par
Charles Deyss, Paris, 1860, vol. ii, p. 123.

41

42 POLITICAL PARTIES

mechanism, and one difficult to put in operation. When we have
to do with a mass distributed over a considerable area, to con-
sult the rank and file upon every question would involve an
enormous loss of time, and the opinion thus obtained would
moreover be summary and vague. But the problems of the hour
need a speedy decision, and this is why democracy can no longer
function in its primitive and genuine form, unless the policy
pursued is to be temporizing, involving the loss of the most fa-
vourable opportunities for action. Under such guidance, the
party becomes incapable of acting in alliance with others, and
loses its political elasticity. A fighting party needs a hierar-
chical structure. In the absence of such a structure, the party
will be comparable to a savage and shapeless negro army, which
is unable to withstand a single well-disciplined and well-drilled
battalion of European soldiers.

In the daily struggle, nothing but a certain degree of csesar-
ism will ensure the rapid transmission and the precise execution
of orders. The Dutch socialist. Van Kol, frankly declares that
true democracy cannot be installed until the fight is over. Mean-
while, even a socialist leadership must possess authority, and
sufficient force to maintain itself in power. A provisional des-
potism is, he contends, essential, and liberty itself must yield
to the need for prompt action. Thus the submission of the
masses to the will of a few individuals comes to be considered
one of the highest of democratic virtu-es. '*A ceux que sont
appeles a nous conduire, nous promettons fidelite et soumission
et nous leur disons : Hommes ennoblis par le choix du peuple,
montrez nous le chemin, nous vous suivrons. " ^ It is such ut-
terances as this which reveal to us the true nature of the mod-
ern party. In a party, and above all in a fighting political party,
democracy is not for home consumption, but is rather an article
made for export. Every political organization has need of ''a
light equipment which will not hamper its movements." De-
mocracy is utterly incompatible with strategic promptness, and
the forces of democracy do not lend themselves to the rapid
opening of a campaign. This is why political parties, even when
democratic, exhibit so much hostility to the referendum and to
all other measures for the safeguard of real democracy ; and this
is why in their constitution these parties exhibit, if not uncondi-

^Eienzi [van Kol], Socialisme et Liberie, Giard et Briere, Paris, 1898,
pp. 243-53.

MILITARIST IDEAS AND METHODS 43

tional c^sarism, at least extremely strong centralizing and oli-
garchical tendencies. Lagardelle puts the finishing touches to
the picture in the following words: "Et ils ont reproduit a
I'usage des proletaires les moyens de domination des capitalistes ;
ils ont constitue un gouvernement ouvrier aussi dur que le gou-
vernement bourgeois, une bureaucratic ouvriere aussi lourde que
la bureaucratic bourgeoise, un pouvoir central qui dit aux
ouvriers ce qu'ils peuvent et ce qu'ils ne peuvent pas faire, qui
brisent dans les syndicats et chez les syndiques toute indepen-
dance et toute initiative et qui doit parfois inspirer a ses vic-
times le regret des modes capitalistes de I'autorite."^

The close resemblance between a fighting democratic party
and a military organization is reflected in socialist terminology,
which is largely borrowed, and especially in Germany, from mili-
tary science. There is hardly one expression of military tactics
and strategy, hardly even a phrase of barrack slang, which does
not recur again and again in the leading articles of the socialist
press.* in the daily practice of the socialist struggle it is true
that preference is almost invariably given to the temporizing
tactics of Fabius Cunctator, but this depends upon special cir-
cumstances^ which will be subsequently discussed (Part VI, chap.

^Hubert Lagardelle, Le Parti Socialiste et la Confederation du Travail,
Discussion, avec J. Guesde, Eiviere, Paris, 1907, p. 24.

*As typical may be instanced the expressions used by Kautsky in his
article Was nun?, "Neue Zeit, " xxviii, No. 29, p. 68. "Like all other
strategy, the Fabian strategy is dependent upon certain conditions which
alone make it possible and appropriate. It would be foolish to wish to apply
it in. all circumstances, and the fact that we have for many years used it
with brilliant success is no reason, why we should continue to use it for all
time. When circumstances change, a new strategical method may be neces-
sary. In war, the Fabian strategy becomes impossible or undesirable when
the enemy is threatening to cut us off from our base or even to occupy that
base. Direct attack then becomes a matter of self-preservation. Similarly
f^e Fabian strategy must be abandoned when it demoralizes and discourages
our own troops, when it threatens to induce cowardice and desertion, and
when only a policy of vigorous attack can hold the army together. It also
becomes impossible to avoid assuming the offensive when we are caught in
a blind alley, where our only choice is between giving battle and a shameful
capitulation. Finally, the change to an offensive strategy is indicated when
the enemy himself is in a tight corner, so that the situation is favourable to
our side, and by a rapid and energetic use of our opportunity we can deliver
a vigorous and perhaps fatal blow. The transference of these considerations
from the military to the political field does not require lengthy explana-
tions." It is perhaps worthy of note that the French socialists of anti-
militarist tendency are in the habit of referring to their leader Gustave
N^erve as **notre General."

M POLITICAL PARTIES

i) . The intimate association between party life and military life
is manifested also by the passionate interest which some of the
most distinguished leaders of German socialism take in military
affairs. During his residence in England, the German merchant
Frederick Engels, who had once served in the Guards as a
volunteer, devoted his leisure to the simultaneous exposition of
socialist and of militarist theory.^ To Bebel, the son of a Prus-
sian non-commissioned officer, the world is indebted for a number
of ideas of reform in matters of military technique which have
nothing in common with the theoretical socialist anti-militarism.^
Bebel and Engels, and especially the latter, may even be con-
sidered as essentially military writers. This tendency on the
part of socialist leaders is not the outcome of mere chance, but
depends upon an instinct of elective affinity,

*See in particular Engels' works: Po und Bhein (1859) ; Savoy en, Nissa
und der Bhein (1860); Die preussische Militdrfrage und die deutsche Ar-
beiterpartei (1865); Der deutsche BauernJcrieg (1875, Vorwarts-Verlag, Ber-
lin, 1909, 3rd ed. edited by Mehring) ; Kann Europa dbriisten? (Nuremberg,
1893).

' Cf ., for example, the pamphlet NicJit steJiendes Heer, sondern VolTcswehr,
Dietz, Stuttgart, 1908, p. 80; also a large number of speeches in the Eeichs-
tag on the military estimates, in which he is never tired of discussing the
minutiae of army reform, and in which in especial he advocates changes
in military equipment to render the army more e£Q.cient.

B. PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSES OF LEADERSHIP

CHAPTER IV

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A CUSTOMARY RIGHT TO
THE OFFICE OF DELEGATE

' One who holds the office of delegate acquires a moral right to
that office, and delegates remain in office unless removed by ex- ^
traordinary circumstances or in obedience to rules observed with
exceptional strictness. An election made for a definite purpose
becomes a life incumbency. Custom becomes a right. One who
has for a certain time held the office of delegate ends by re-
garding that office as his own property. If refused reinstate-
ment, he threatens reprisals (the threat of resignation being the
least serious among these) which will tend to sow confusion
among his comrades, and this confusion will continue until he is
victorious.

Resignation of office, in so far as it is not a mere expression
of discouragement or protest (such as disinclination to accept a .
candidature in an unpromising constituency), is in most cases
a means for the retention and fortification of leadership. Even
in political organizations greater than party, the leaders often
employ this stratagem, thus disarming their adversaries by a
deference which does not lack a specious democratic colour. The
opponent is forced to exhibit in return an even greater defer-
ence, and this above all when the leader who makes use of the .
method is really indispensable or is considered indispensable by
the mass. The recent history of Germany affords numerous
examples showing the infallibility of this machiavellian device
for the maintenance of leadership. During the troubled period
of transition from absolute to constitutional monarchy, during
the ministry of Ludolf Camphausen, King Frederick William
IV of Prussia threatened to abdicate whenever liberal ideas were
tending in Prussian politics to gain the upper hand over the
romanticist conservatism which was dear to his heart. By this
threat the liberals were placed in a dilemma. Either they must

45

46 POLITICAL PARTIES

accept the king's abdication, which would involve the accession
to the throne of Prince William of Prussia, a man of ultra-reac-
tionary tendencies, whose reign was likely to be initiated by an
uprising among the lower classes; or else they must abandon
their liberal schemes, and maintain in power the king now be-
come indispensable. Thus Frederick William always succeeded
in getting his own way and in defeating the schemes of his
political opponents.^ Thirty-five years later Prince Bismarck,
establishing his strength with the weapon of his indispensability,
consolidated his omnipotence over the German empire which he
had recently created, by again and again handing in his resigna-
tion to the Emperor William I, His aim was to reduce the old
monarch to obedience, whenever the latter showed any signs of
exercising an independent will, by suggesting the chaos in in-
ternal and external policy which would necessarily result from
the retirement of the ''founder of the empire," since the aged
emperor was not competent to undertake the personal direction
of affairs.^ The present president of the Brazilian republic,
Hermes da Fonseca, owes his position chiefly to a timely threat of
resignation. Having been appointed Minister of War in 1907,
Fonseca undertook the reorganization of the Brazilian army.
He brought forward a bill for the introduction of universal
compulsory military service, which was fiercely resisted in both
houses of parliament. Through his energetic personal advocacy,
sustained by a threat of resignation, the measure was ultimately
carried, and secured for its promoter such renown, that not only
did he remain in office, but in the year 1910 was elected Presi-
dent of the Eepublic by 102,000 votes against 52,000.

It is the same in all political parties. Whenever an obstacle
is encountered, the leaders are apt to offer to resign, professing
that they are weary of office, but really aiming to show to the
dissentients the indispensability of their own leadership. In
1864, when Vahlteich proposed a change in the rules of the Gen-
eral Association of German Workers, Lassalle, the president, was
very angry, and, conscious of his own value to the movement,
propounded the following alternative: Either you protect me

^Kbnig Friedrich Wilhelm IV. Briefwechsel mit Ludolf CampJiausen,
edited and annotated by Erich Brandenburg, Gebr. Paetel, Berlin, 1906, pp.
112 et seq.

' VenkwurdigTceiten des Fursten CModwig su HohenloJie-ScMllingsfurst,
ed. by Friedrich Curtius, Deutsche Verlagsanstalt, Stuttgart and Leipzig,
1907, vol. ii.

COERCION BY LEADERS 47

from the recurrence of such friction as this, or I throw up
my office. The immediate result was the expulsion of the impor-
tunate critic.^ In Holland to-day, Troelstra, the Dutch Lassalle,
likewise succeeds in disarming his opponents within the party
by pathetically threatening to retire into private life, saying that
if they go on subjecting his actions to an inopportune criticism,
his injured idealism will force him to withdraw from the daily
struggles of party life.* The same thing has occurred more than
once in the history of the Italian socialist party. It often hap-
pens that the socialist members of parliament find themselves
in disagreement with the majority of the party upon some ques-
tion of importance, such as that of the opportuneness of a gen-
eral strike ; or in the party congresses they may wish to record
their votes in opposition to the views of their respective branches.
It is easy for them to get their own way and to silence their
opponents by threatening to resign. If necessary, they go still
further, and actually resign their seats, appealing to the electors
as the only authority competent to decide the question in dispute.
In such cases they are nearly always re-elected, and thus attain
to an incontestable position of power. At the socialist congress
held at Bologna in 1904, some of the deputies voted in favour of
the reformist resolution, in opposition to the wishes of the ma-
jority of the comrades whose views they were supposed to repre-
sent. When called to account, they offered to resign their seats,
and the party electors, wishing to avoid the expense and trouble
of a new election, and afraid of the loss of party seats, hastened
to condone the deputies' action. In May, 1906, twenty-four out
of the twenty-seven members of the socialist group in the Cham-
ber resigned their seats, in consequence of the difference of views
between themselves and the rank and file on the subject of the
general strike, which the deputies had repudiated. All but
three were re-elected.

Such actions have a fine democratic air, and yet hardly serve
to conceal the dictatorial spirit of those who perform them. The
leader who asks for a vote of confidence is in appearance submit-
ting to the judgment of his followers, but in reality he throws
into the scale the entire weight of his own indispensability, real

^Julius Vahlteich, Ferdinand Lassalle und die Anfdnge der deutschen
Arbeiterbewegung. Birk, Munich, 1904, p. 74.

* This occurred at the party congress at Utrecht in 1906. Cf. the account
given in the "Nieuwe Arnhemsche Courant," vol. vii. No. 4639, and P. J.
Troelstra^ Inzaken Parti jleiding, Wakker, Eotterdam, 1906, pp. 103-4.

4$ POLITICAL PARTIES

or supposed, and thus commonly forces submission to his will.®
The leaders are extremely careful never to admit that the true
aim of their threat to resign is the reinforcement of their power
over the rank and file.^ They declare, on the contrary, that their
conduct is determined by the purest democratic spirit, that it is
a striking proof of their fineness of feeling, of their sense of
personal dignity, and of their deference for the mass. Yet if
we really look into the matter we cannot fail to see that, whether
they desire it or not, their action is an oligarchical demonstration,
the manifestation of a tendency to enfranchise themselves from
the control of the rank and file. Such resignations, even if not
dictated by a self-seeking policy, but offered solely in order to
prevent differences of opinion between the leaders and the mass,
and in order to maintain the necessary harmony of views, always
have as their practical outcome the subjection of the mass to the
authority of the leader,

^ Schweitzer knew this very well when he declared to the general assembly
of the AUgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein that he would resign his posi-
tion if he were not allowed to call a congress of the association in order
to discuss the foundation of trade-unions. His biographer writes very
justly: "Schweitzer must have felt his position to be extremely strong.
Otherwise he would never have ventured to deliver such an ultimatum, for
his defeat on a vote would have made it almost impossible for him to retain
his office, to which he was greatly attached. He had not, however, overesti-
mated his influence, and when he was reproached with exercising an im-
proper pressure on the delegates, this was in itself an indirect recognition
of his in dispensability. This time, in fact, he got his own way" (Gustav
Mayer, J. B. von Schweitser und die Sosialdemocratie, Fischer, Jena, 1909,
p. 223),

*In the tactical struggles in the Italian party during the year 1904, the
Florentine reformist socialist. Professor Gaetano Pieraccini, declared that
he would not withdraw the resignation of his position as a party-leader un-
less the adherents of the revolutionary tendency were expelled from the
party ("Avanguardia Socialista," anno ii. No. 76).

CHAPTER V

THE NEED FOR LEADERSHIP FELT BY THE MASS

A DISTINGUISHED French dramatist who devoted his leisure to
writing prose studies of serious social questions, Alexandre Du-
mas fils, once observed that every human advance was, at its
outset, opposed by ninety-nine per cent of humanity. "Mais
c'est sans aucune importance puisque ee centieme auquel nous
appartenons, depuis le commencement du monde a fait faire aux
quatre-vingt-dix-neuf autres toutes les reformes dont ils se trou-
vent tres bien aujourd'hui tout en protestant contre celles qui
restent a faire." In another passage he adds : "Les majorites
ne sont que la preuve de ce qui est," whereas "les minorites
sont souvent le germe de ce qui sera. ' ' ^

There is no exaggeration in the assertion that among the citi-
zens who enjoy political rights the number of those who have
a lively interest in public affairs is insignificant. In the majority
of human beings the sense of an intimate relationship between
the good of the individual and the good of the collectivity is but
little developed. , Most people are altogether devoid of under-
standing of the actions and reactions between that organism we
call the state and their private interests, their prosperity, and
their life. As de Tocqueville expresses it, they regard it as far
more important to consider "s'il faut faire passer un chemin
au bout de leur domaine"^ than to interest themselves in the
general work of public administration. The majority is content,
with Stirner, to call out to the state, "Get away from between
me and the sun!" Stirner makes fun of all those who, in ac-
cordance vsdth the views of Kant, preach it to humanity as a
* ' sacred duty ' ' to take an interest in public affairs. ' ' Let those
persons who have a personal interest in political changes con-
cern themselves with these. Neither now nor at any future time
will 'sacred duty' lead people to trouble themselves about the

^ Alexandre Dumas fils, Les Femmes qui tuent et les Femmes qui votent,
Caiman Levy, Paris, 1880, pp. 54 and 214.
' Alexis de Tocqueville, op. eit., vol. i, p. 167.

50 POLITICAL PARTIES

state, just as little as it is by 'sacred duty' that they become men
of science, artists, etc. Egoism alone can spur people to an in-
terest in public affairs, and will spur them — ^when matters grow
a good deal worse. ' ' ^

In the life of modern democratic parties we may observe signs
of similar indifference. It is only a minority which participates
in party decisions, and sometimes that minority is ludicrously
small. The most important resolutions taken by the most demo-
cratic of all parties, the socialist party, always emanate from a
handful of the members. It is true that the renouncement of
the exercise of democratic rights is voluntary; except in those
cases, which are common enough, where the active participa-
tion of the organized mass in party life is prevented by geo-
graphical or topographical conditions. Speaking generally, it is
the urban part of the organization which decides everything;
the duties of the members living in country districts and in re-
mote provincial towns are greatly restricted ; they are expected
to pay their subscriptions and to vote during elections in favour
of the candidates selected by the organization of the great town.
There is here at work the influence of tactical considerations as
well as that of local conditions. The preponderance of the towns-
men over the scattered country members corresponds to the neces-
sity of promptness in decision and speed in action to which allu-
sion was made in an earlier chapter.

Within the large towns there goes on a process of spontaneous
selection, in virtue of which there is separated from the organ-
ized mass a certain number of members who participate more
diligently than the others in the work of the organization. This
inner group is composed, like that of the pious frequenters of
the churches, of two very distinct categories: the category of
those who are animated by a fine sense of duty, and the cate-
gory of those whose attendance is merely a matter of habit.
In all countries the number of this inner circle is comparatively
small.* The majority of the members are as indifferent to the

* Max Stirner (Kaspar Schmidt), J)er Einsige und sein Eigentum, Eeclam,
Leipzig, 1892, p. 272.

*Here is a typical example. The deputy Leonida Bissolati, a leading
Italian socialist and one of the founders of the party, was on November 5,
1905 (with other distinguished members), expelled from the party. The
expulsion was effected at a meeting of the Eoman branch. The full mem-
bership of this branch was seven hundred, but only one hundred were pres-
ent at the meeting; of these fifty-five voted for the exclusion and forty-five
against ("Azione Socialista," i, No. 28). In May 1910, the same branch,

'NEED FOR LEADERSHIP^ 51

organization as the majority of the electors are to parliament.'
Even in countries like France, where collective political educa-
tion is of older date, the majority renounces all active partici-
pation in tactical and administrative questions, leaving these to
the little gi'oup which makes a practice of attending meetings.
The gi-eat struggles which go on among the leaders on behalf
of one tactical method or another, struggles in fact for supre-
macy in the party, but carried out in the name of Llarxism,
reformism, or syndicalism, are not merely beyond the under-
standing of the rank and file, but leave them altogether cold.
In almost all countries it is easy to observe that meetings held
to discuss questions of the hour, whether political, sensational,
or sentimental (such as protection, an attack upon the Govern-
ment, the Kussian revolution, and the like), or those for the
discussion of matters of general interest (the discovery of the
North Pole, personal hygiene, spiritualism), attract a far larger
audience, even when reserved to members of the party, than do
meetings for the discussion of tactical or theoretical questions,
although these are of vital importance to the doctrine or to the
organization. The present writer knows this from personal ex-
perience in three typical great cities, Paris, Frankfort-on-the-
Main, and Turin. Notwithstanding differences of atmosphere,
there was observable in each of these three centres the same in-
difference to party affairs and the same slackness of attendance
at ordinary meetings.® The great majority of the members will
not attend meetings unless some noted orator is to speak, or un-

then containing about six hundred members, passed a resolution fiercely
condemning the socialist deputies on account of their being too friendly
■with the ministry. The resolution was carried by forty-one votes against
twenty-four ("Stampa," liv. No. 134).

° In trade-union circles loud complaints are also heard regarding this hu-
man, all- too-human, tendency. Thus, of the bakers' union we read: "In
every strike we have the same experience, that in the distribution of leaflets,
in picketing, in the whole work of agitation which a strike necessitates, it is
only a few of the members who do their share, while the great mass of the
strikers, and especially the younger ones, shirk all these duties" (0. AU-
mann, Die Entwicldung des Verhandes der Backer und Berufsgenossen
Deutschlands und die LoTinbewegungen und StreiTcs im BacJcergewerbe, Ver-
lag von O. AUmann, 1900, p. 68).

^ The same phenomenon is seen in the trade-imion movement. * ' In Ger-
many the Bourses du Travail numbering 5,000 members think themselves
happy if they can get together 500 of these at a meeting. The other nine-
tenths of the organized workers habitually lack all interest in the intimate
life of their corporation" (Bernhard Schildbach, Verfassungsfragen in den
GewerJcschaften, "Neue Zeit," xxrs, fasc. 10).

52 POLITICAL PARTIES

less some extremely striking war-cry is sounded for their attrac-
tion, such, as, In France, "A has la vie chere!", or, in Germany,
"Down with personal government!" A good meeting can also
be held when there is a cinema-show, or a popular scientific lec-
ture illustrated by lantern-slides. In a word, the ordinary mem-
bers have a weakness for everything which appeals to their eyes
and for such spectacles as will always attract a gaping crowdJ

It may be added that the regular attendants at public meetings
iand committees are by no means always proletarians — especially
where the smaller centres are concerned. When his work is fin-
ished, the proletarian can think only of rest, and of getting to
bed in good time. His place at meetings is taken by petty bour-
geois, by those who come to sell newspapers and picture-post-
cards, by clerks, by young intellectuals who have not yet got a
position in their own circle, people who are all glad to hear
themselves spoken of as authentic proletarians and to be glorified
as the class of the future.*

The same thing happens in party life as happens in the state.
In both, the demand for monetary supplies is upon a coercive
foundation, but the electoral system has no established sanction.
An electoral right exists, but no electoral duty. Until this duty
is superimposed upon the right, it appears probable that a small
minority only will continue to avail itself of the right which the
majority voluntarily renounces, and that the minority will al-
ways dictate laws for the indifferent and apathetic mass. The
consequence is that, in the political groupings of democracy,
the participation in party life has an echeloned aspect. The
extensive base consists of the great mass of electors ; upon this is
superimposed the enormously smaller mass of enrolled members
of the local branch of the party, numbering perhaps one-tenth
or even as few as one-thirtieth of the electors ; above this, again,
comes the much smaller number of the members who regularly
attend meetings ; next comes the group of officials of the party ;
and highest of all, consisting in part of the same individuals as
the last group, come the half-dozen or so members of the execu-
tive committee. Effective power is here in inverse ratio to the
number of those who exercise it. Thus practical democracy is
represented by the following diagram : —

^ Cf ,, as far as Italian conditions are concerned, Giulio Casalini, Crisi di
Impreparasione, ''Critica Socials," 1904, xiv, No. 1.

*Cf. the vigorous criticism of Filippo Turati, Ancora la Propaganda irrir
produttiva, "Critica Sociale," 1903, xiii. No. 14.

NEED FOR LEADERSHIP 53

Committee.
Officials.
Habitues of
meetings.
Enrolled
members.
Voters.*

Though it grumbles occasionally, the majority is really de-
lighted to find persons who will take the trouble to look after its
affairs. In the mass, and even in the organized mass of the la-
bour parties, there is an immense need for direction and guid-
ance. This need is accompanied by a genuine cult for the lead-
ers, who are regarded as heroes. Misoneism, the rock upon which
so many serious reforms have at all times been wrecked, is at
present rather increasing than diminishing. This increase is
explicable owing to the more extensive division of labour in mod-
ern civilized society, which renders it more and more impossible
to embrace in a single glance the totality of the political organi-
zation of the state and its ever more complicated mechanism.
To this misoneism are superadded, and more particularly in the
popular parties, profound differences of culture and education
among the members. These differences give to the need for lead-
ership felt by the masses a continually increasing dynamic ten-
dency.

This tendency is manifest in the political parties of all coun-
tries. It is true that its intensity varies as between one nation
and another, in accordance with contingencies of a historical
character or with the influences of racial psychology. The Ger-
man people in especial exhibits to an extreme degree the need
for some one to point out the way and to issue orders. This
peculiarity, common to all classes not excepting the proletariat,
furnishes a psychological soil upon which a powerful directive
hegemony can flourish luxuriantly. There exist among the Ger-
mans all the preconditions necessary for such a development : a
psychical predisposition to subordination, a profound instinct
for discipline, in a word, the whole still-persistent inheritance
of the influence of the Prussian drill-sergeant, with all its advan-
tages and all its disadvantages ; in addition, a trust in authority
which verges on the complete absence of a critical faculty.^" It

„_ — ■ ■■

» This figure must not be regarded as intended to represent such relation-
ships according to scale, for this would require an entire page. It is purely
diagrammatic,

" Native and foreign writers alike have referred to the influence of these

54 POLITICAL PARTIES.

is only the Ehinelanders, possessed of a somewhat more con-
spicuous individuality, who constitute, to a certain extent, an ex-
ception to this generalization.^^ The risks to the democratic
spirit that are involved by this peculiarity of the German char-
characteristics of German racial psychology upon the development of the Ger-
man socialist party, Karl Diehl goes so far as to ascribe to them the origin
and importance of the German labour party. He writes : * ' If we find that
in Germany a socialist party has come into existence gi-eater than that found
anywhere else in the world, this is dependent upon the whole historical evo-
lution of the labour movement. ... A certain political immaturity, and
the ease with which the Germans are disciplined and subordinated, were
the factors which enabled socialism to gain in this country so extraordinary
a number of adherents" (Karl Diehl, Ueher Sozialismus, Kommunismus und
Anarchismus, Fischer, Jena, 1906, p. 226). Another writer well acquainted
with the German labour movement, rightly points out the contradiction be-
tween the official doctrine of historic materialism and the actual overvalua-
tion of great men in the movement : ' * However earnestly German socialism
has desired, however fundamentally its philosophy of history has laboured,
to undermine the influence of great personalities, the members of the social-
ist party have in practice paid little attention to such theories. From
1860 down to our own day, the masses have always sworn by their masters.
If it has been made a just reproach to the German people that there exists
among us an excessive belief in authority, to the labour movement, even in
its international dress, there must attach considerable responsibility for
this error" (Gustav Mayer, Die Losung der deutschen Frage im Jahre 1866
und die Arheiterbewegung, 'Testgaben fiir Wilhelm Lexis," Fischer, Jena,
1906, p. 227). A Portuguese socialist describes with great acuteness the
authoritarian leanings of the German. party : "In Germany, the militarist
tendencies which may be observed in the other camps are, with greater or
less intensity, reflected in the socialist party. This is especially noticeable
in the congresses, where, at a simple sign given by the deputy Singer, all
the delegates approve or disapprove in accordance with the instructions they
have received. The same military discipline extends to the parties and to
the political groupings. And woe to him who transgresses- these rules : he
runs the risk of being expelled without chance of appeal" (Magalhaes Lima,
O primeiro de Maio, Typ. de la Companhia Nacional Editora, Lisbon, 1894,
p. 40).

^ In the Ehenish districts, the active and vivacious character of the popu-
lation is, according to many trade-union leaders, a matter of considerable
significance : * ' More inclined to form societies for recreation than for seri-
ous undertakings, the Ehenish workers are difficult to organize. Those who
have been induced to join a union can be retained in that body only when
led by some one whose personality is sympathetic to them, and who under-
stands on suitable occasions to flavour seriousness with humour. If the
central organization of the trade-union brings about a change in the local
leadership without paying due attention to this consideration, the anti-au-
thoritarian tendency of the Ehinelanders comes into play, and the mem-
bership falls off greatly ' ' (Walter Troeltsch and P. Hirsehf eld, Die deutsclien
'SosialdemoJcratischen GewerTcschaften. Vntersuchungen u. Materialen uber
ihre geographische Verireitung, Carl Heymanns Verlag, Berlin, 1905, p. 71).

NEED FOR LEADERSHIP 55

acter were well known to Karl Marx. Although himself a party-
leader in the fullest sense of the term, and although endowed to
the highest degree with the qualities necessary for leadership, he
thought it necessary to warn the German workers against en-
tertaining too rigid a conception of organization. In a letter
from Marx to Schweitzer we are told that in Germany, where the
workers are bureaucratically controlled from birth upwards,
and for this reason have a blind faith in constituted authority,
it is above all necessary to teach them to walk by themselves.^-
The indifference which in normal times the mass is accustomed
to display in ordinary political life becomes, in certain cases of
particular importance, an obstacle to the extension of the party
influence. The crowd may abandon the leaders at the very mo-
ment when these are preparing for energetic action. This hap-
pens even in connection with the organization of demonstrations
of protest. At the Austrian socialist congress held at Salzburg
in 1904, Dr. Ellenbogen complained: "I am always anxious
when the party leaders undertake any kind of action. It seems
simply impossible to arouse the interest of the workers even in
matters which one would have expected them to understand.
In the agitation against the new military schemes, we found it
impossible to organize meetings of a respectable size. " ^^ In
Saxony, in 1895, when it was proposed to restrict the suffrage,
the socialist leaders vainly endeavoured to arouse a general
agitation, their attempts being rendered nugatory by the gen-
eral apathy of the masses. The language of the press was in-
flammatory. Millions of leaflets were distributed. Within the
space of a few days a hundred and fifty meetings of protest were
held. All was without effect. There was no genuine agitation.
The meetings, especially in the outlying districts, were very
scantily attended.^* The leaders, alike the Central Committee
and the district organizers, were overwhelmed with disgust at
the calm indifference of the mass, which rendered serious agita-
tion altogether impossible.^^ The failure of the movement was

" Letter from Karl Marx to J. B. von Schweitzer, dated London, October
13, 1868, published, with comments, by Ed. Bernstein of ' ' Neue Zeit, ' ' sv,
1897, p. 9. Bernstein himself appears to share the views of Marx. (Cf. Ed.
Bernstein, GeiverlcschaftsdemoTcratie, "Sozial. Monatshef te, " 1909, p. 83.)

^Protokoll der Verhandlungeyt,, etc., J. Brand, Vienna, 1904, p. 90.

" Edmund Fischer, Der Widerstand des deutschen Volkes gegen WaMen-
trechtungen, *'Sozial. Monatshef te, " viii (x), fasc. 10.

^Edmund Fischer, Die Sdchsische Prole, "Sozial. Monatshef te," viii
(x), fasc. 12.

56 POLITICAL PARTIES

due to an error of omission on the part of the leaders. The
rank and file did not recognize the importance of the loss they
were to suffer because the leaders had neglected to point out
all its consequences. Accustomed to being ruled, the rank and
file need a considerable work of preparation before they can be
set in motion. In default of this, and when signals which the
rank and file do not understand are unexpectedly made by the
leaders, they pay no attention.

The most striking proof of the organic weakness of the mass
is furnished by the way in which, when deprived of their leaders
in time of action, they abandon the field of battle in disordered
flight ; they seem to have no power of instinctive reorganization,
and are useless until new captains arise capable of replacing
those that have been lost. The failure of innumerable strikes
and political agitations is explained very simply by the oppor-
tune action of the authorities, who have placed the leaders under
lock and key.^^ It is this experience which has given rise to the
view that popular movements are, generally speaking, artificial
products, the work of isolated individuals termed agitators
(Aufwiegler, Hetzer, Meneurs, Sobillatori), and that it suffices
to suppress the agitators to get the upper hand of the agitation.
This opinion is especially favoured by certain narrow-minded
conservatives. But such an idea shows only the incapacity of
those who profess to understand the intimate nature of the mass.

^^ The most conspicuous example of this is furnished by an episode in the
history of the Danish labour movement. The condemnation and subsequent
exile in America of the socialist leader, Louis Pio, in the seventies, sufficed
to check for years the growth of the labour movement, then in its infancy
(Eud. Meyer, Der Sosialismus in DdnemarJc, Aug. Schindler, Berlin, 1875,
pp. 13 et seq.). Gustav Bang describes the collapse of the movement in the
following terms: "He [Pio] had become fatigued, and was too weak to
continue the struggle. In the spring of 1877 he allowed himself to be bribed
by the police, who induced him to leave the country for ever ; with him went
Geleff, who had also been bribed. Pio died in America in 1894. This was
disastrous for the party. It had trusted Pio too blindly, believed in him
too earnestly, to be able to stand on its own feet. . . . There were no
new men to fill the empty place, and the party was too loosely constructed,
too weakly combined, to be able to hold together. The unions dissolved
or faded out of existence" (G. Bang, Ein BUck auf die GescJiicMe der
ddnischen Sozialdemocratie, "Neue Zeit," December 25, 1897, x\d, vol. i.
No. 13, pp. 404-5). Another notable example, and a more recent one, be-
longs to the history of the labour movement in France, where in 1909 the
attempt at a general strike of railway men failed because Briand, the
Prime Minister, had suddenly imprisoned some of the most influential lead-
ers of the railway workers.

NEED FOR LEADERSHIP 57

In collective movements, with rare exceptions, the process is nat-
ural and not "artificial." Natural above all is the movement
itself, at whose head the leader takes his place, not as a rule of
his own initiative, but by force of circumstances. No less natural
is the sudden collapse of the agitation as soon as the army is de-
prived of its chiefs.

The need which the mass feels for guidance, and its incapacity
for acting in default of an initiative from without and from
above, impose, however, heavy burdens upon the chiefs. The
leaders of modern democratic parties do not lead an idle life.
Their positions are anything but sinecures, and they have ac-
quired their supremacy at the cost of extremely hard work.
Their life is one of incessant effort. The tenacious, persistent,
and indefatigable agitation characteristic of the socialist party,
particularly in Germany, never relaxed in consequence of casual
failures, nor ever abandoned because of casual successes, and
which no other party has yet succeeded in imitating, has justly
aroused the admiration even of critics and of bourgeois oppo-
nents.^^ In democratic organizations the activity of the profes-
sional leader is extremely fatiguing, often destructive to health,
and in general (despite the division of labour) highly complex.^^

"In a controversial article directed against a Catholic periodical of con-
servative tendencies, the "Germania" of Berlin, another Catholic paper,
the " Westdeutsche Arbeiterzeitung, " the organ of the Catholic workers of
the Ehineland, publishes the following appreciation of its socialist oppo-
nents: "We could wish that our own party would take example by the
sentiment of sacrifice for the party welfare with which the socialist workers
are animated, "We cannot venture to assert, as does the ' Germania, ' that in
the socialist party there is a larger number of arrivists than in any other,
for we must confess that we lack materials to prove such a proposition. It
is indeed our own impression, based upon considerable experience, that the
socialist workers demand from their paid employees a notable amount of
intellectual labour and of propagandist activity. In fact, the leaders com-
monly fulfil the desires of the mass" (quoted from the "Frankfurter
Volksstimme, " 1910, No. 248, 5th supplement). In the same vein writes
the Catholic priest Engelbert Kaeser, Ber Sosialdemokrat hat's Wort!,
Herder, Freiburg i. B., 1905, 3rd ed., p. 201.

^ The capitalist press is in the habit of describing socialist leaders as de-
bauchees and parasites who batten upon the funds extracted from the toilers.
The first part of the accusation is absurd. The second is, of course, sub-
stantially true, but does not, to the sociologist, involve condemnation on
that account. Certainly the leaders live at the cost of the workers, but with
the full knowledge of these, and, in so far as the workers are organized, by
their deliberate will. The leaders are selected and paid to render in return
inestimable service. Another reflection may be made in passing. The fact
that the workers are able permanently to maintain out of their savings so

58 POLITICAL PARTIES

He has continually to sacrifice his own vitality in the struggle,
and when for reasons of health he ought to slacken his activities,
he is not free to do so. The claims made upon him never wane.
The crowd has an incurable passion for distinguished orators,
for men of a great name, and if these are not obtainable, they
insist at least upon an M.P. At anniversaries and other celebra-
tions of which the democratic masses are so fond, and always
during electoral meetings^ demands pour in to the central organi-
zation, and close always on the same note, "we must have an
M.P. ! " ^^ In addition, the leaders have to undertake all kinds
of literary work, and should they happen to be barristers, they
must give their time to the numerous legal proceedings which
are of importance to the party. As for the leaders of the highest
grade, they are simply stifled under the honorary positions which
are showered upon them. Accumulation of functions is, in
fact, one of the characteristics of modern democratic parties.
In the German socialist party we not infrequently find that the
same individual is a town-councillor, a member of the diet, and
a member of the Reichstag, or that, in addition to two of these
functions, he is editor of a newspaper, secretary of a trade
union, or secretary of a co-operative society ; ^° the same thing
is true of Belgium, of Holland,-^ and of Italy. All this brings

enormous a party-apparatus as that of the German social democracy, con-
tradicts the Theory of Increasing Misery, and contradicts even more plainly
Lassalle's theory (now, indeed, almost universally abandoned) of the Iron
Law of Wages. (Cf. the present writer's address to the third Italian Con-
gress of the Sciences held at Padua in 1909, Dilucidasioni sulla teoria dell'
immiserimento, "Giornale degli Economisti," xxxix, series 2, 1909.)

^^ In Italy, requests for an M.P. are often sent to the head office when the
matter in question is no more than the proclamation of a strike. One of the
country branches once asked for the exclusive services of a socialist deputy
for an entire fortnight. He was to study the local working conditions of
the agricultural labourers, to discover possibilities of improvement, to draft
a memorial to the local landowners, and so on (Varazzani and Costa, Eela-
sione delta Diresione del Partito al Congresso d'Imola, September 1902, Co-
operativa Tip.-editrice, Imola, 1902, p. 7).

^^ Oehme, referring to the labour movement in Bremen, writes : ' ' My posi-
tion was certainly not one to be envied, for I was publisher, editor, distribu-
tor, advertising agent, and cashier, not to mention maid-of-all-work.
Throughout the year I had not a single Sunday free, for I spent all my
Sundays running up and down stairs in order to collect the monthly sub-
scriptions to the paper, a task not accomplished without difficulty." This
refers to an earlier date when the anti-socialist laws were still in force, and
when the division of labour in the movement had not attained its present
degree ("Bremer Burger-Zeitung, " September 23, 1904, xv, No. 225).

*^In Holland, Willem Hubertus Vliegeu was at one and the same time

NEED FOR LEADERSHIP 58^

honour to the leader, gives him power over the mass, makes him
more and more indispensable; but it also involves continuous
overwork; for those who are not of exceptionally strong consti-
tution it is apt to involve a premature death.^^

socialist deputy, editor in chief of the central organ of the party ("Het
Volk"), county councillor of N. Holland, municipal councillor of Amster-
dam, president of the party executive, and chairman in ordinary in all the
congresses — sis functions in all (Leeuwenburg, "Nieuwe Arnhemsche Cou-
rant," No. 4659).

^ It is remarkable how large a percentage of socialist agitators and or-
ganizers have succumbed to mental disorder. Carlo Cafiero, Jean Volders,
Bruno Schonlank, Georg Jaeckh, died in asylums. Lassalle was on the verge
of physical and mental collapse when he determined to devote his life to
Helene von Donniges. This predisposition to insanity is a result of the over-
work which the party life imposes upoa its leaders.

CHAPTER VI

THE POLITICAL GRATITUDE OF THE MASSES

In addition to the political indifference of the masses and to
their need for guidance, there is another factor, and one of a
loftier moral quality, which contributes to the supremacy of the
leaders, and this is the gratitude felt by the crowd for those
who speak and write on their behalf. The leaders acquire fame
as defenders and advisers of the people; and while the mass,
economically indispensable, goes quietly about its daily work, the
leaders, for love of the cause, must often suffer persecution, im-
prisonment, and exile.^

These men, who have often acquired, as it were, an aureole of
sanctity and martyrdom, ask one reward only for their services,
gratitude.^ Sometimes this demand for gratitude finds written

^"It is the privilege of the leaders to march in the van, and to be the
first to receive the blows directed against the party by our adversaries"
(Auguste Bebel, Ein NacJiwort but Viseprasidentenfrage und Verwandtem,
reprint from "Neue Zeit," 1903, p. 21). Naturally this applies chiefly to
times of comparative political calm.

^ The appeal to gratitude is an effective means of domination, an ad-
mirable platform upon which to base further claims. The poet aptly puts
in the mouth of a spokesman of the masses the following words, directed
against a victorious leader who is vaunting his own merits: "Neither the
money in our money-boxes, nor the words in our mouths, nor the wine in
our cellars, nor the wives in our beds, will be safe from him. He will always
be telling us, *I delivered you from the Genoese, I am the victor of Alis-
campo' " (Eudolph Lothar, Konig EarleMn, G-. H. Meyer, Leipzig-Berlin,
1900, p. 39). — The part which gratitude has played in the political life of
great national organizations still lacks adequate recognition. The omnipo-
tence of Bismarck, the founder of the modern German Empire, an omnipo-
tence which endured for nearly thirty years, was largely based upon this
sentiment. Max Nordau writes with perfect justice: ** Unprincipled ad-
vantage is taken of the most touching and amiable characteristic of our
nation, its gratitude" (Max Nordau, Die Kranlcheit des Jahrhunderts, B.
Elischer, Leipzig, 1888, p. 247). — In Italy, many patriots who had rendered
great services in the struggles on behalf of United Italy were, after the con-
stitution of the kingdom, elected deputies, and were subsequently re-elected
again and again, simply out of gratitude for their ancient services. (Cf.
Pasquale Turiello, Governo e Governati in Italia, Fatti, N. Zanichelli, Bo-
logna, 1889, 2nd revised edition, p, 325.)

60

POLITICAL GRATITUDE OF MASSES 61

expression.^ Among the masses themselves this sentiment of
gratitude is extremely strong.* If from time to time we encoun-
ter exceptions to this rule, if the masses display the blackest
ingratitude towards their chosen leaders, we may be certain
that there is on such occasions a drama of jealousy being played
beneath the surface. There is a demagogic struggle, fierce,
masked, and obstinate, between one leader and another, and the
mass has to intervene in this struggle, and to decide between the
adversaries. But in favouring one competitor, it necessarily dis-
plays ''ingratitude" towards the other. Putting aside these ex-
ceptional cases, the mass is sincerely grateful to its leaders, re-
garding gratitude as a sacred duty.^ As a rule, this sentiment
of gratitude is displayed in the continual re-election of the

^ Cf . a catechism for the use of the Belgian workers (Alphonse Octors,
De Catechismus van den WerTcman, Volisdrukkerij, Ghent, 1905, p. 6), in
which we read, in reply to the question, "Has there not been considerable
change for the better of late?" the answer, "Yes, thanks to the unwearying
propaganda of De Paepe, Jean Volders, G. Defnet, Leon and Alfred De
Fuisseaux, Vandervelde, Anseele, and many others, the workers have secured
the legal recognition of their civil equality."

* The leaders often maintain that the democratic masses are ungrateful,
but this is far from being true. Eoseher writes of democracy in the life
of the state, that whereas the ingratitude of the monarchy and of the aris-
tocracy is conscious and deliberate, when the democracy is ungrateful, this
usually arises from an involuntary forgetfulness, dependent upon the fre-
quent party changes characteristic of democratic government, and is alto-
gether uncalculating and devoid of personal intention (Eoseher, op. cit., p.
396). In the internal life of the democratic party, since here "party
changes" are much rarer than in the national life of democracy, there
is far less likelihood of the display of ingratitude.

* The German socialist party showed a fine spirit of gratitude towards the
elder Liebknecht, appointing him, when his intellectual powers were already
beginning to fail, to the editorship of ' ' Vorwarts, ' ' and voting him, though
not without opposition, a salary of £360 (ProtoTcoll des sozialdemoTiratischen
Farteitags zu Franl-furt, 1894, p. 33). When Liebknecht died and his
family was left badly off, the party provided funds for the continuance of
his sons' education.

Eduard Bernstein considers that it was simply on account of a sense of
gratitude that Max Sehippel, the deputy, was not expelled from the party
at the Bremen Congress of 1904. "A fijie human sentiment, whose work-
ing has been seen in earlier congresses, was here once more manifest. I
refer to the obvious disinclination to pass a political death-sentence upon
one who has done important services for the party. . . . These are cer-
tainly among the choicest feelings of which the human heart is capable:
respect for merit, and antipathy to the idea of brutal expulsion" (Eduard
Bernstein, Was Bremen gebracht hat, "Neue Montagsblatt, " i, No. 22,
September 26, 1904.

62 POLITICAL PARTIES

leaders who have deserved well of the party, so that leadership
commonly becomes perpetual. It is the general feeling of the
mass that it would be ''ungrateful" if they failed to confirm in
his functions every leader of long service.^

®It is to this sentiment that Bernstein refers the indignation which was
displayed at the Dresden Congress (1903) by the majority of the dele-
gates, when it was reported that a number of the more revolutionary ele-
ments had decided to vote against the re-election of the reformist Ignatz
Auer as a member of the Executive Committee. The general feeling in
the party was that of eternal gratitude towards Auer because he had been
one of the founders of the party, and because to the rank and file he seemed
the personification of a most interesting period in the history of the social
democracy (Eduard Bernstein, Die BemoTcratie in der Sozialdemolcratie,
"Sozial. Monatsh.," September 3, 1908, p. 1109). In the opinion of the
present writer, the case of Auer manifests also, gratitude apart, the gen-
eral disinclinatiou of the masses to change their leaders. (Cf. Part II,
Chap. I.)

CHAPTER VII

THE CULT OF VENERATION AMONG THE MASSES

The socialist parties often identify themselves with their leaders
to the extent of adopting the leaders' names. Thus, in Ger-
many from 1863 to 1875 there were Lassallists and Marxists;
whilst in France until quite recently there were Broussists, Al-
lemanists, Guesdists, and Jauresists.^ The fact that these per-
sonal descriptive terms tend to pass out of use in such coun-
tries as Germany may be attributed to two distinct causes : in the
first place, there has been an enormous increase in the member-
ship and especially in the voting strength of the party; and
secondly, within the party, dictatorship has given place to oli-
garchy, and the leaders of this oligarchy are inspired by senti-
ments of mutual jealousy. As a supplementary cause may be
mentioned the general lack of leaders of conspicuous ability,
capable of securing and maintaining an absolute and indisputa-
ble authority.^

The English anthropo-sociologist Frazer contends that the
maintenance of the order and authority of the state is to a large
extent dependent upon the superstitious ideas of the masses,
this being, in his view, a bad means used to a good end. Among
such superstitious notions, Frazer draws attention to the belief
so frequent among the people that their leaders belong to a

^In tMs we see the analogy of party with religious sects and monastic
orders. Yves Guyot rightly points out that the members of the modern
party imitate the practice of the medieval monks, who, while faithfully fol-
lowing the teachings of their respective masters, called themselves after
St. Dominic, St. Benedict, St. Augustine, and St. Francis (Yves Guyot, La
Comedie socialMe, Bibl. Charpentier, Paris, 1897, p. 111).

^ According to Sombart, there has occurred in the German socialist party,
concurrently with its numerical increase, a decline in quality. He writes:
"The socialist democracy found it necessary to reduce to impotence the
men of real talent, and to replace them by vigorous routinists. What could
Marx do to-day as editor of the 'Neue Zeit' or even of the ' Sozialistische
Monatshefte'; what could LassaUe do in the Eeichstag?" (Werner Som-
bart, Die Deutsche Volkswirtschaft im 19 Jalirhundert, Bondi, Berlin, 1903,
p. 528.)

63.

64 POLITICAL PARTIES

higher order of humanity than themselves.^ The phenomenon
is, in fact, conspicuous in the history of the socialist parties
during the last fifty years. The supremacy of the leaders over
the mass depends, not solely upon the factors already discussed,
hut also upon the widespread superstitious reverence paid to the
leaders on account of their superiority in formal culture — for
which a much greater respect is commonly felt than for true
intellectual worth.

The adoration of the led for the leaders is commonly latent.
It reveals itself by signs that are barely perceptible, such as
the tone of veneration in which the idol's name is pronounced,
the perfect docility with which the least of his signs is obeyed,
and the indignation which is aroused by any critical attack upon
his personality. But where the individuality of the leader is
truly exceptional, and also in periods of lively excitement, the
latent fervour is conspicuously manifested with the violence of
an acute paroxysm. In June 1864, the hot-blooded Ehinelanders
received Lassalle like a god. Garlands were hung across the
streets. Maids of honour showered flowers over him. Intermina-
ble lines of carriages followed the chariot of the "president."
With overflowing and irresistible enthusiasm and with frenzied
applause were received the words of the hero of the triumph,
often extravagant and in the vein of the charlatan, for he spoke
rather as if he wished to defy criticism than to provoke applause.
It was in truth a triumphal march. Nothing was lacking — ^tri-
umphal arches, hymns of welcome, solemn receptions of foreign
deputations.* Lassalle was ambitious in the grand style, and,
as Bismarck said of him at a later date, his thoughts did not
go far short of asking whether the future German Empire, in
which he was greatly interested, ought to be ruled by a dynasty
of HohenzoUerns or of Lassalles.^ We need feel no surprise that
all this adulation excited Lassalle 's imagination to such a degree
that he soon afterwards felt able to promise his affianced that
he would one day enter the capital as president of the German
republic, seated in a chariot drawn by six white horses.^

* J. G. Frazer, Psyche's TasTc, Macmillan, London, 1909, p. 56.

*See the accounts in the contemporary papers, which appear as preface
to the speech delivered by Lassalle at Eonsdorf, May 22, 1864, in Ferdinand
Lassalles GesamtwerTcen, edited by Erich Blum, Pfau, Leipzig, vol. ii, p. 301.

^Bismarck, in the Eeichstag, September 17, 1878 (Furst Bismarck's Be-
den, edited by Philippe Stein, Eeclam, Leipzig, vol. vii, p. 85).

*J. Vahlteich, op. cit, p. 58.

VENERATION AMONG MASSES 65

In Sicily, in 1892, when the first agricultural labourers'
unions, known as fasci, were constituted, the members had an
almost supernatural faith in their leaders. In an ingenuous con-
fusion of the social question with their religious practices, they
often in their processions carried the crucifix side by side with
the red flag and with placards inscribed with sentences from the
works of Marx. The leaders were escorted on their way to the
meetings with music, torches, and Japanese lanterns. Many,
drunk with the sentiment of adoration, prostrated themselves be-
fore their leaders, as in former days they had prostrated them-
selves before their bishops.^ A bourgeois journalist once asked
an old peasant, member of a socialist fascio, if the proletarians
did not think that Giuseppe De Felice Giuffrida, Garibaldi
Bosco, and the other young students or lawyers who, though of
bourgeois origin, were working on behalf of the fasci, were not
really doing this with the sole aim of securing their own election
as county councillors and deputies. "De Felice and Bosco are
angels come down from heaven!" was the peasant's brief and
eloquent reply.^

It may be admitted that not all the workers would have re-
plied to such a question in this way, for the Sicilian populace
has always had a peculiar tendency to hero-worship. But
throughout southern Italy, and to some extent in central Italy,
the leaders are even to-day revered by the masses with rites of a
semi-religious character. In Calabria, Enrico Ferri was for some
time adored as a tutelary saint against governmental corruption.
In Rome also, where the tradition of the classic forms of pa-
ganism still survives, Ferri was hailed in a public hall, in the
name of all the ''proletarian quirites," as "the greatest among
the great. ' ' The occasion for this demonstration was that Ferri
had broken a window as a sign of protest against a censure ut-
tered by the President of the Chamber (1901).'' In Holland,
in the year 1886, when Domela Nieuwenhuis was liberated from
prison, he received from the people, as he himself records,

^Adolfo Eossi, Die Bewegung in Sicilien, Dietz, Stuttgart, 1S94, pp. 8
and 35.

* Eossi, op. cit., p. 34. Even to-day, De Felice is venerated as a demigod,
especially in Catagna, where, as Syndic, he has carried on an extensive and
many-sided activity in the field of municipal socialism. (Cf. Gisella Michels-
Lindner, GeschicMe der modernen Gemeindebetriebe in Italien, Dunke u.
Humblot, Leipzig, 1909, pp. 77 et seq.)

•Enrico Ferri, La Questione meridionale, ''Asino," Eome, 1902, p. 4.

66 POLITICAL PARTIES

greater honours than had ever been paid to any sovereign, and
the halls in which he addressed meetings were profusely adorned
with flowers.^" Such an attitude on the part of the mass is not
peculiar to backward countries or remote periods; it is an ata-
vistic survival of primitive psychology. A proof of this is
afforded by the idolatrous worship paid to-day in the depart-
ment of the Nord (the most advanced industrial region in
France) to the Marxist prophet, Jules Guesde. Moreover, in
certain parts of England, we find that the working classes give
their leaders a reception which recalls the days of Lassalle.^^

The adoration of the chiefs survives their death. The great-
est among them are canonized. After the death of Lassalle,
the AUgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein, of which he had been
absolute monarch, broke up into two sections, the ''fraction of
the Countess Hatzfeld" or "female line," as the Marxist ad-
versaries sarcastically styled it, and the "male line" led by J.
B. von Schweitzer. While quarrelling fiercely with one another,
these two groups were at one, not only in respect of the honour
they paid to Lassalle 's memory, but also in their faithful ob-
servance of every letter of his programme. Nor has Karl Marx
escaped this sort of socialist canonization, and the fanatical zeal
with which some of his followers defend him to this day strongly
recalls the hero-worship paid to Lassalle.^^ Just as Christians
used to give and still give to their infants the names of the
founders of their religion, St. Peter and St. Paul, so socialist
parents in certain parts of central Italy call their boys Lassallo
and their girls Marxina, as an emblem of the new faith. More-
over, the zealots often have to pay heavily for their devotion, in
quarrels with angry relatives and with recalcitrant registration-
officials, and sometimes even in the form of serious material in-
jury, such as loss of employment. Whilst this practice is at
times no more than a manifestation of that intellectual snobbery
from which even the working-class environment is not wholly
free, it is often the outward sign of a profound and sincere ideal-

^" Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis, Van Christen tot Anarchist, GedenTc-
schriften, Van Holkema en Warandorp, Amsterdam, 1911, p. 198. Cf. also
P. J. Troelstra, ''De Wording der S.D.A.P.," Na tien jaar (1894-1904)
GedenTischriften, Soep, Amsterdam, 1904, p. 97.

^^Cf. a report by H, M. Hyndman of his visit to Burnley, "Justice,"
1910, xxviii, No. 1355.

^An analogous spirit is manifested by the phrase long current among
the militant Italian democracy, *'He spoke evil of Garibaldi," signifying
"He committed the most horrible of crimes."

VENERATION AMONG MASSES 67

ism.13 Whatever its cause, it proves the adoration felt by the
masses for the leaders, an adoration transcending the limits of
a simple sense of obligation for services rendered. Sometimes
this sentiment of hero-worship is turned to practical account by
speculative tradesmen, so that we see in the newspapers (espe-
cially in America, Italy, and the southern Slav lands) adver-
tisements of "Karl Marx liqueurs" and "Karl Marx buttons";
and such articles are offered for sale at public meetings.^* A
clear light is thrown upon the childish character of proletarian
psychologj^ by the fact that these speculative activities often
prove extremely lucrative.

The masses experience a profound need to prostrate them-
selves, not simply before great ideals, but also before the in-
dividuals who in their eyes incorporate such ideals. Their ado-
ration for these temporal divinities is the more blind in propor-
tion as their lives are rude. There is considerable truth in the
paradoxical phrase of Bernard Shaw, who defines democracy as
a collection of idolators, in contradistinction to aristocracy,
which is a collection of idols.^^ This need to pay adoring wor-
ship is often the sole permanent element which survives all the
changes in the ideas of the masses. The industrial workers of
Saxony have during recent years passed from fervent Protestant-
ism to socialism. It is possible that in the case of some of
them this evolution has been accompanied by a complete reversal
of all their former intellectual and moral valuations; but it is
certain that if from their domestic shrines they have expelled the
traditional image of Luther, it has only been in order to replace
it by one of Bebel. In Emilia, where the peasantry has under-
gone a similar evolution, the oleograph of the Blessed Virgin
has simply given place to one of Prampolini ; and in southern
Italy, faith in the annual miracle of the liquefaction of the blood
of St. Januarius has yielded before a faith in the miracle of the
superhuman power of Enrico Ferri, "the Scourge of the Ca-
morra." Amid the ruins of the old moral world of the masses,
there remains intact the triumphal column of religious need.
They often behave towards their leaders after the manner of the
sculptor of ancient Greece who, having modelled a Jupiter To-

^'Cf. the articles by Savino Varazzani, Una famiglia socialista, and Beo
di leso-SociaUsmo, "Avanti della Domenica," ii, Nos. 67 and 68.

^*Kobert Michels, Storia del Marxismo in Italia, Mongini, Eoine, 1910, pp.
148 et seq.

"Bernard Shaw, The Sevolutionist's EandbooTc.

68 POLITICAL PARTIES

nans, prostrated himself in adoration before the work of his own
hands.

In the object of such adoration, megalomania is apt to ensue.^
The immeasurable presumption, which is not without its comic
side, sometimes found in modern popular leaders, is not depend-
ent solely on their being self-made men, but also upon the atmos-
phere of adulation in which they live and breathe. This over-
weening self-esteem on the part of the leaders diffuses a power-
ful suggestive influence, whereby the masses are confirmed in
their admiration for their leaders, and it thus proves a source
of enhanced power.

^^ George Sand writes: "J'ai travaille toute ma vie a etre modeste. Je
declare que je ne voudrais pas vivre quinze jours entouree de quinze per-
sonnes persuadees que je ne peux pas me tromper. J'arriverais peut-etre a
me le persuader a moi-meme" (George Sand, Journal d'un voyageur pen-
dant la guerre, M. Levy Freres, Paris, 1871, pp. 216-17).

CHAPTER VIII

ACCESSORY QUALITIES REQUISITE TO LEADERSHIP

In the opening days of the labour movement, the foundation
of leadership consisted mainly, if not exclusively, in oratorical
skill. It is impossible for the crowd to escape the aesthetic and
emotional influence of words. The fineness of the oratory ex-
ercises a suggestive influence whereby the crowd is completely
subordinated to the will of the orator.^ Now the essential char-
acteristic of democracy is found in the readiness with which it
succumbs to the magic of words, written as well as spoken. In
a democratic regime, the born leaders are orators and journal-
ists. It suffices to mention Gambetta and Clemenceau in France ;
Gladstone and Lloyd George in England ; Crispi and Luzzatti in
Italy. In states under democratic rule it is a general belief that
oratorical power is the only thing which renders a man com-
petent for the direction of public affairs. The same maxim
applies even more definitely to the control of the great demo-
cratic parties. The influence of the spoken word has been ob-
vious above all in the country in which a democratic regime
first came into existence. This was pointed out in 1826 by an
acute Italian observer: ''The English people, so prudent in
the use of its time, experiences, in listening to a public speaker,

* The suggestive force of tlie oratory of the cultured leader is described
in the following terms by one who was himself a master in its exercise:
"In a political orator the principal matter is neither his command of the
subject nor the mode in which he presents it; his power is established
from the moment when he begins, no longer to speak, but rather to be
carried forward upon a thousand glances, friendly it may be or hostile,
but always vibrant with a metallic sheen, and launched by a thousand pal-
pitating hearts. There is always in the orator's mind, even in that of
the greatest, a sense of extreme tension . . . until at last the moment
comes when one's blood suddenly warms up, and one sails on a cloud, or
soars liie a lark, higher, always higher. . . . The orator on the platform
reacts to the gaze of the audience. He sees the red hearts of the crowd
palpitating towards him, their thoughts concentrating towards him like
a thousand threads uniting in one" (Adolf Koster, Die zehn Schornsieine,
Langen, Munich, 1909, p. 113).

69

70 POLITICAL PAKTIES

the same pleasure which it enjoys at the theatre when the works
of the most celebrated dramatists are being played. " ^ A quar-
ter of a century later, Carlyle wrote: *'No British man can at-
tain to be a statesman or chief of workers till he has first proved
himself a chief of talkers. " ^ In France, Ernest-Charles, mak-
ing a statistical study of the professions of the deputies, showed
that, as far as the young, impetuous, lively, and progressive par-
ties are concerned, almost all the parliamentary representatives
are journalists and able speakers.* This applies not only to the
socialists, but also to the nationalists and to the antisemites. The
whole modern history of the political labour movement confirms
the observation, Jaures,^ Guesde, Lagardelle, Herve, Bebel,
Ferri, Turati^, Labriola, Kamsay Macdonald, Troelstra, Henriette
Koland-Holst, Adler, Daszynski® — all, each in his own fashion,
are powerful orators.

On the other hand, it is the lack of oratorical talent which
largely explains why, in Germany, such a personality as that of
Eduard Bernstein has remained in comparative obscurity, not-
withstanding the vigour of his doctrinal views and his great
intellectual influence; why, in Holland, Domela Nieuwenhuis
has in the end lost his leading position ; why, in France, a man
possessed of so much talent and cultivation as Paul Lafargue,

''Giuseppe Pecchio, Tin' Elesione di Memiri del Parlamento in IngMl-
terra, Lugano, 1826, p. 109.

^Thomas Carlyle, Latter Day Pamphlets, No. V, "Stump-Orator,"
Thomas Carlyle 's Works, "The Standard Edition," Chapman and Hall,
London, 1906, vol. iii, p. 167.

*J. Ernest-Charles, Les Lettres du Parlement, "La Eevue," 1901, vol.
xscsix, p. 361.

^ A critic says of Jaures that he * ' governs by eloquence. " " Jaures est
orateur; c'est un vaste orateur, et son eloquence est lyrique, s'etale en
iarges periodes, pour I'essort desquelles il faut de larges amphitheatres.
La societe, 1 'universe, toute la societe, si possible, dans sa majestueuse
unite, et 1 'universe dans sa prodigieuse immensite, ee serait mieux encore,
sont les amphitheatres naturels, les auditoires necessaires, devant qui
Jaures se sent de taille a discourir" (Edouard Berth, Les discours de
Jaures, "Mouvement Socialiste," series 2, iv, No. 144, December 1, 1904,
pp. 215 and 218). Another biographer believes that in Jaures' skull he
can recognize the anthropological type of the ' ' born orator " : " il a la tete
faite pour parler au loin et regarder en I'air" (Gustave Tery, Jean Jaures,
le poete lyrique, "L'CEuvre," Paris, 1904, viii, p. 11). Cf. also the view
expressed by Urbain Gohier, Bistoire d'une trahison, 1899-1903, Societe
Parisienne d 'edition, Paris, 1903, pp. 28-9.

'Eichard Chamarz, CharalctersMssen Oesterreichischer Politiker, "Die
Zeit," Naumann, 1902, p. 493.

POWER OF ORATORY n

closely connected by family ties with Karl Marx, failed to attain
such a position in the councils of the party as Guesde, who is
far from being a man of science, or even a man of very power-
ful intelligence, but who is a notable orator.

Those who aspire to leadership in the labour organizations
fully recognize the importance of the oratorical art. In March,
1909, the socialist students of Ruskin College, Oxford, expressed
discontent with their professors because these gave to sociology
and to pure logic a more important place in the curriculum than
to oratorical exercises. Embryo politicians, the students fully
recognized the profit they would derive from oratory in their
chosen career. Resolving to back up their complaint by ener-
getic action, they went on strike until they had got their own
way.'^

The prestige acquired by the orator in the minds of the crowd
is almost unlimited. What the masses appreciate above all are
oratorical gifts as such, beauty and strength of voice, suppleness
of mind, badinage ; whilst the content of the speech is of quite
secondary importance. • A spouter who, as if bitten by a taran-
tula, rushes hither and thither to speak to the people, is apt to
be regarded as a zealous and active comrade, whereas one who,
speaking little but working much, does valuable service for the
party, is regarded with disdain, and considered but an incom-
plete socialist.^

Unquestionably, the fascination exercised by the beauty of a
sonorous eloquence is often, for the masses, no more than the
prelude to a long series of disillusionments, either because the
speaker 's practical activities bear no proportion to his oratorical
abilities, or simply because he is a person of altogether common
character. In most eases, however, the masses, intoxicated by
the speaker's powers, are hypnotized to such a degree that for
long periods to come they see in him a magnified image of their
own ego.^ Their admiration and enthusiasm for the orator are,
in ultimate analysis, no more than admiration and enthusiasm
for their own personalities, and these sentiments are fostered by

'Cf. a notice in "The Westminster Gazette," March 30, 1909.

* Adolf 0 Zerboglio, Ancora la Propaganda improduttiva, "Critica So-
ciale, " xiii, No. 14.

^ Cf . regarding the emotional relationships between leaders and the masses
a sketch by J. K. Kochanowski, UrzeitUcinge und Wetterleuchten Ge-
schichtlicher Gesetse in den Ereignissen der Gegenwart, Wagner, Innsbruck,
1910, p. 19.

72 POLITICAL PARTIES

the orator in that he undertakes to speak and to act in the name
of the mass, in the name, that is, of every individual. In re-
sponding to the appeal of the great orator, the mass is uncon-
sciously influenced by its own egoism.

Numerous and varied are the personal qualities thanks to
which certain individuals succeed in ruling the masses. These
qualities, which may be considered as specific qualities of lead-
ership, are not necessarily all assembled in every leader. Among
them, the chief is the force of will which reduces to obedience
less powerful wills. Next in importance come the following: a
wider extent of knowledge which impresses the members of the
leaders ' environment ; a catonian strength of conviction, a force
of ideas often verging on fanaticism, and which arouses the re-
spect of the masses by its very intensity ; self-sufficiency, even if
accompanied by arrogant pride, so long as the leader knows how
to make the crowd share his own pride in himself ; ^® in. excep-
tional cases, finally, goodness of heart and disinterestedness,
qualities which recall in the minds of the crowd the figure of
Christ, and reawaken religious sentiments which are decayed
but not extinct.
s The quality, however, which most of all impresses the crowd
} is the prestige of celebrity. As we learn from modern psy»::
chology, a notable factor in the suggestive influence exercised by
a man is found in the elevation to which he has climbed on the
path leading to the Parnassus of celebrity. Tarde writes : ' ' En
realite, quaud un esprit agit sur notre pensee, c'est avec la col-
laboration de beaucoup d'autres esprits a travers lesquels nous
le voyons et dont I'opinion se reflete dans la notre, a notre insu.
Nous songeons vaguement a la consideration qu'on a pour lui
... a I'admiration qu'il inspire. . . . S'il s'agit d'un
homme celebre, c'est en masse et confusement que le nombre
considerable de ses appreciateurs nous impressionne, et cet in-
fluence revet un air de solidarite objective, de realite imperson-
nelle, qui fait le prestige propre aux personnes glorieuses. " "
It suffices for the celebrated man to raise a finger to make for
himself a political position. It is a point of honour with the
masses to put the conduct of their affairs in the hands of a ce-

"Cf. Eienzi (H. van Kol), op. cit., p. 250; Gabriel Tarde, li' Action in-
termentale, "Grande Eevue," Paris, 1900, iv, No. 11, p. 331; Ettore Cic-
eotti, Psicologia del Movimento socialista, Laterza, Bari, 1903, p. 128; E,
Fourniere, op. cit., p. 128.

"G. Tarde, L' Action intermentale, p. 334.

POWER OF PRESTIGE 73

lebrity. The crowd always submits willingly to the control of
distinguished individuals. The man who appears before them
crowned with laurels is considered a priori to be a demi-god.
If he consents to place himself at their head it matters little
where he has gained his laurels, for he can count upon their
applause and enthusiasm. It was because Lassalle was cele-
brated at once as poet, philosopher, and barrister that he was
able to awaken the toiling masses, ordinarily slumbering or
drawn in the wake of the bourgeois democracy, to group them
round his own person. Lassalle was himself well aware of the
effect which great names produce upon the crowd, and for this
reason he always endeavoured to secure for his party the adhe-
sion of men of note.^- In Italy, Enrico Ferri, who while still a
young man was already a university professor, and had at the
same time acquired wide distinction as the founder of the new
Italian school of criminology, had merely to present himself at
the Socialist Congress of Reggio Emilia in the year 1893 to
secure the leadership of the Italian socialist party, a leadership
which he retained for fifteen years. In like manner, Cesare Lom-
broso, the anthropologist, and Edmondo De Amicis, the author,
had no sooner given in their adhesion to the socialist party than
they were immediately raised to positions of honour, one becom-
ing the confidential adviser and the other the official Homer
of the militant Italian proletariat. Yet not one of these distin-
guished men had become a regular subscribing member; they
had merely sent certain congratulatory telegrams and letters.^^

"Lassalle, who had a keen sense of theatrical pomp, and wished to dis-
play the results obtauied by his energies, endeavoured to introduce as many
bourgeois as he could into the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein. In his
famous last speech he plumed himself upon having in the union a con-
siderable number of men ' ' who belong to the bourgeois class ... a whole
series of authors and thinkers" (Ferdinand Lassalle, Die Agitation des
Allgemeinen Deutsclien Arieitervereins und das Verspreclien des Konigs
von Preussen, a speech at Eonsdorf, 1864. Edition "Vorwarts," Berlin,
1892, p. 40). Even Bernstein, whose judgment of Lassalle is otherwise
so extremely favourable, admits the president's excessive inclination for the
attraction of brilliant names into the Veifein (Eduard Bernstein, Ferdi-
nand Lassalle und seine Bedeutung fur die ArbeiterTclasse. Edition " Vor-
warts," Berlin, 1909, p. 55).

" Regarding the relationships of these two distinguished men with Italian
socialism, consult Eobert Miehels, Edmondo Be Amicis, " Sozialistische
Monatshef te, " 1909, fasc. 6, p. 361; and Cesare Lomhroso, Note suW TJomo
politico e suir TJomo privato, Archiv. di Anthrop. Criminale, xxxii, fasc.
iv-v.

74 POLITICAL PARTIES

In France, Jean Jaures, already distingnislied as an iacademie
philosoplier and as a radical politician, and Anatole France,
the celebrated novelist, attained to leading positions in tlie
labour movement as soon as they decided to join it, without hav-
ing to undergo any period of probation. In England, when
the poet William Morris, at the age of forty-eight, became a
socialist, he immediately acquired great popularity in the social-
ist movement. Similar was the case in Holland of Herman
Gorter, author of the fine lyric poem Mei, and of the poetess
Henriette Eoland-Holst. In contemporary Germany there are
certain great men, at the zenith of their fame, who are intimate
sympathizers with the party, but have not decided to join it.
It may, however, be regarded as certain that if Gerhard Haupt-
mann, after the success of his Weavers, and Werner Sombart,
when his first published writings had attracted such wide at-
tention, had given in their official adhesion to the German so-
cialist party, they would now be amongst the most honoured
leaders of the famous three million socialists of Germany. In
the popular view, to bear a name which is already familiar in
certain respects constitutes the best title to leadership. Among
the party leaders will be found men who have acquired fame
solely within the ranks of the party, at the price of long and
arduous struggles, but the masses have always instinctively pre-
ferred to these those leaders who have joined them when already
full of honour and glory and possessing independent claims to
immortality. Such fame won in other fields seems to them of
greater value than that which is won under their own eyes
and solely in the field of socialism.

Certain accessory facts are worth mentioning in this connec-
tion. History teaches that between the chiefs who have acquired
high rank solely in consequence of work for the party and those
who have entered the party with a prestige acquired in other
fields, a conflict speedily arises, and there often ensues a pro-
longed struggle for dominion between two factions. As motives
for this struggle, we have, on the one side, envy and jealousy,
and, on the other, presumption and ambition. In addition to
these subjective factors, objective and tactical factors are also
in operation. The great man who has attained distinction solely
within the party commonly possesses, when compared with the
' ' outsider, ' ' the advantage of a keener sense for the immediately
practical, a better understanding of mass-psychology, a fuller
knowledge of the history of the labour movement, and in many

JEALOUSY OF LEADERS 75

cases clearer ideas concerning the doctrinal content of the party
programme.

In this struggle between the two groups of leaders, two phases
may almost always be distinguished. The new arrivals begin
by detaching the masses from the power of the old leaders, and
by preaching a new evangel which the crowd accepts with de-
lirious enthusiasm. This evangel, however, is no longer illu-
minated by the treasury of ideas which as a whole constitute so-
cialism properly so-called, but by ideas drawn from the science
or from the art in which these great men have previously ac-
quired fame, and it is given a suggestive weight owing to the ad-
miration of the great amorphous public. Meanwhile, the old'
leaders, filled with rancour, having first organized for defence,
end by openly assuming the offensive. They have the natural
advantage of numbers. It often happens that the new leaders
lose their heads because, as great men, they have cherished the
illusion that they are quite safe from such surprises. Are not
the old leaders persons of mediocre ability, who have acquired
their present position only at the price of a long and arduous ap-
prenticeship ? In the view of the new-comers, this apprentice-
ship does not demand any distinguished intellectual qualities,
and from their superior platform they look down with mingled
disdain and compassion. There are, however, additional reasons
why the men of independent distinction almost invariably suc-
cumb in such a struggle. Poets, aesthetes, or men of science, they
refuse to submit to the general discipline of the party, and at-
tack the external forms of democracy. But this weakens their
position, for the mass cherishes such forms, even when it is ruled
by an oligarchy. Consequently their adversaries, though no
more truly democratic, since they are much cleverer in preserv-
ing the appearance of democracy, gain credit with the crowd.
It may be added that the great men are not accustomed to
confront systematic opposition. They become enervated when
prolonged resistance is forced upon them. It is thus easy to un-
derstand why, in disgust and disillusion, they so often abandon
the struggle, or create a little private clique for separate political
action. The few among them who remain in the party are in-
evitably overthrown and thrust into the background by the old
leaders. The great Lassalle had already found a dangerous
competitor in the person of the simple ex-workman, Julius Vahl-
teich. It is true that LassaUe succeeded in disembarrassing
himself of this opponent, but had he lived longer, he would have

76 POLITICAL PARTIES

had to sustain a merciless struggle against Liebkneeht and Bebel.
William Morris, after lie had broken with the old professional
leaders of the English labour movement, was reduced to the
leadership of his little guard of intellectuals at Hammersmith.
Enrico Ferri, who at his first entrance into the party had to
encounter the tenacious mistrust of the old leaders, subsequently
committed theoretical and practical errors which ended by de-
priving him once for all of his position as official chief of the
Italian socialists. Gorter and Henriette Eoland-Holst, after hav-
ing for some years aroused intense enthusiasm, were finally over-
thrown and reduced to complete impotence by the old notables of
the party.

Thus the dominion dependent upon distinction acquired out-
side the party is comparatively ephemeral. But age in itself
is no barrier whatever to the power of the leaders. The ancient
Greeks said that white hairs were the first crown which must
decorate the leaders' foreheads. To-day, however, we live in an
epoch in which there is less need for accumulated personal ex-
perience of life, for science puts at every one's disposal efficient
means of instruction that even the youngest may speedily become
thoroughly well instructed. To-day everything is quickly ac-
quired, even that experience in which formerly consisted the
sole and genuine superiority of the old over the young. Thus,
not in consequence of democracy, but simply owing to the tech-
nical type of modern civilization, age has lost much of its value,
and therefore has lost, in addition, the respect which it in-
spired and the influence which it exercised. It might rather
be said that age is a hindrance to progress within the party, just
as in any other career which it is better to enter in youth be-
cause there are so many steps to mount. This is true at least
in the case of well organized parties, and where there is a great
influx of new members. It is certainly different as far as con-
cerns leaders who have grown old in the service of the party.
Age here constitutes an element of superiority. Apart from the
gratitude which the masses feel towards the old fighter on ac-
count of the services he has rendered to the cause, he also pos-
sesses this great advantage over the novice, that he has a better
knowledge of his trade. David Hume tells us that in practical
agriculture the superiority of the old farmer over the young
arises in consequence of a certain uniformity in the effects of the
sun, the rain, and the soil upon the growth of plants, and be-
cause practical experience teaches the rules that determine and

JEALOUSY OF LEADERS 77

guide these influences.^* In party life, the old hand has a sim-
ilar advantage. He possesses a profounder understanding of the
relationships between cause and effect which fonn the frame-
work of popular political life and the substance of popular psy-
chology. The result is that his conduct is guided by a fineness
of perception to which the young have not yet attained.

14 1 i Why is the aged husbandman more skilful in his calling than the
young beginner but because there is a certain uniformity in the operation
of the sun, rain, and earth towards the production of vegetables; and
experience teaches the old practitioner the rules by which this operation
is governed and directed" (David Hume, Enquiries Concerning the Human
Understanding, viii, i, 65, Ed. Clar. Press, Oxford, 1902, p. 85).

CHAPTER IX

ACCESSORY PECULIARITIES OF THE MASSES

To enable us to understand and properly to appreciate the su-
periority of the leaders over the mass it is necessary to turn our
attention to the characteristics of the rank and file. The ques-
tion arises, what are these masses?

It has already been shown that a general sentiment of in-
difference towards the management of its own affairs is natural
to the crowd, even when organized to form political parties.

The very composition of the mass is such as to render it un-
able to resist the power of an order of leaders aware of its
own strength. An analysis of the German trade unions in re-
spect of the age of their members gives a sufficiently faithful
picture of the composition also of the various socialist parties.
The great majority of the membership ranges in age from 25
to 39 years.^ Quite young men find other ways of employing
their leisure; they are heedless, their thoughts run in erotic
channels, they are always hoping that some miracle will deliver
them from the need of passing their whole lives as simple wage-
earners, and for these reasons they are slow to join a trade
union. The men over forty, weary and disillusioned, commonly
resign their membership (unless retained in the union by purely
personal interest, to secure out-of-work pay, insurance against
illness, and the like). Consequently there is lacking in the or-
ganization the force of control of ardent and irreverent youth
and also that of experienced maturity. In other words, the lead-
ers have to do with a mass of members to whom they are superior
in respect of age and experience of life, whilst they have noth-
ing to fear from the relentless criticism which is so peculiarly
characteristic of men who have just attained to virility.

Another important consideration as to the composition of
the rank and file who have to be led is its fluctuating character.
It seems, at any rate, that this may be deduced from a report

* Adolf Braun, OrganisierbarTceit der Arbeiter, "Annalen fur soziale
Politik und Gesetzebung, " i, No. 1, p. 47.

78

PECULIARITIES OF THE MASSES 79

of the socialist section of Munich for the year 1906. It contains
statistics, showing analytically the individual duration of mem-
bership. The figures in parenthesis indicate the total number
of members, including those members who had previously be-
longed to other sections.

Membeeship Classified Accoeding to Dueation.

Less than 6 months 1,502

From 6 months to 2 years 1,620

684

1,020

507

270

, 127

131

833

2

to

3

years

3

to

4

4

to

5

5
6

to
to

6

7

7

to

8

More than 8

%

about 23
24
10
15

4

2

2

12%

(1,582)

(1,816)

(995)

(1,965)

(891)

(844)

(604)

(1,289)

(1,666)"

The fluctuating character of the membership is manifest in
even greater degree in the German trade unions. This has given
rise to the saying that a trade union is like a pigeon-house where
the pigeons enter and leave at their caprice. The German Met-
alworkers' Federation (Deutscher Metallarbeiterverband) had,
during the years 1906 to 1908, 210,561 new members. But the
percentage of withdrawals increased in 1906 to 60, in 1907 to 83,
and in 1908 to 100.^ This shows us that the bonds connecting the
bulk of the masses to their organization are extremely slender,
and that it is only a small proportion of the organized workers
who feel themselves really at one with their unions. Hence the
leaders, when compared with the masses, whose composition
varies from moment to moment, constitute a more stable and
more constant element of the organized membership.

^Eobert Michels, Die deutsche Sozialdemocratie, I, Sosiale Zusammen-
setzung, "Arch, fiir Sozialwissenschaf t, " xxiii, fasc. 2.

^ A. von Elm, Fiihrer und Massen, ' ' Korrespondenzblatt der Generalkom-
mission, " xsi. No. 9.

C. INTELLECTUAL FACTORS

CHAPTER X

SUPERIORITY OF THE PROFESSIONAL LEADERS IN
RESPECT OF CULTURE, AND THEIR INDISPEN-
SABILITY; THE FORMAL AND REAL INCOMPE-
TENCE OF THE MASS

In the infancy of tlie socialist party, when the organization is
still weak, when its membership is scanty, and when its princi-
pal aim is to diffuse a knowledge of the elementary principles of
socialism, professional leaders are less numerous than are leaders
whose work in this department is no more than an accessory oc-
cupation. But with the further progress of the organization,
new needs continually arise, at once within the party and in re-
spect of its relationships with the outer world. Thus the moment
inevitably comes when neither the idealism and enthusiasm of
the intellectuals, nor yet the goodwill with which the prole-
tarians devote their free time on Sundays to the work of the
party, suffice any longer to meet the requirements of the case.
The provisional must then give place to the permanent, and
dilettantism must yield to professionalism.

With the appearance of professional leadership, there ensues
a great accentuation of the cultural differences between the lead-
ers and the led. Long experience has shown that among the fac-
tors which secure the dominion of minorities over majorities —
money and its equivalents (economic superiority), tradition and
hereditary transmission (historical superiority) — ^the first place
must be given to the formal instruction of the leaders (so-called
intellectual superiority). Now the most superficial observation
shows that in the parties of the proletariat the leaders are, in
matters of education, greatly superior to the led.

Essentially, this superiority is purely formal. Its existence
is plainly manifest in those countries in which, as in Italy, the
course of political evolution and a- wide-spread psychological
predisposition have caused an afflux into the labour party of a

80

SUPERIORITY OF LEADERS 81

great number of barristers, doctors, and university professors.
The deserters from the bourgeoisie become leaders of the prole-
tariat, not in spite of, but because of, that superiority of formal
instruction which they have acquired in the camp of the enemy
and have brought with them thence.

It is obvious that the dynamic influence of these newcomers
over the mass of workers will diminish in proportion as their
own number increases, that a small nucleus of doctors and bar-
risters in a great popular party will be more influential than a
considerable quantity of intellectuals who are fiercely contending
for supremacy.^ In other countries, however, such as Germany,
whilst we find a few intellectuals among the leaders, by far
the greater number of these are ex-manual workers. In these
lands the bourgeois classes present so firm a front against the
revolutionary workers that the deserters from the bourgeoisie
who pass over to the socialist camp are exposed to a thorough-
going social and political boycott, and, on the other hand, the
proletarians, thanks to the wonderful organization of the state,
and because highly developed capitalist manufacturing industry
demands from its servitors high intelligence, have attained to
the possession of a considerable, if elementary, degree of scholas-
tic instruction, which they earnestly endeavour to amplify by
private study. But the level of instruction among the leaders
of working-class origin is no longer the same as that of their
former workmates. The party mechanism, which, through the
abundance of paid and honorary posts at its disposal, offers a
career to the workers, and which consequently exercises a power-
ful attractive force, determines the transformation of a number
of proletarians with considerable intellectual gifts into employees
whose mode of life becomes that of the petty bourgeois. This
change of condition at once creates the need and provides the
opportunity for the acquisition, at the expense of the mass, of
more elaborate instruction and a clearer view of existing social
relationships.^ Whilst their occupation and the needs of daily
life render it impossible for the masses to attain to a profound
knowledge of the social machinery, and above all of the working

^In the earliest days of the Dutch socialist movement, the leaders, all
of bourgeois origin, were extremely restricted in number. For this very
reason, it seems, they resisted in every possible way the adhesion to fhe
party of new intellectuals whose competition they might have reason to
fear. (Cf. Frank van der Goes, Van de Oude Partij, "Na Tien Jaar," pp.
52 et seq.)

' Cf . Part IV, Chap. V.

82 POLITICAL PARTIES

of the political machine, the leader of working-class origin is
enabled, thanks to his new situation, to make himself intimately
familiar with all the technical details of public life, and thus
to increase his superiority over the rank and file. In proportion
as the profession of politician becomes a more complicated one,
and in proportion as the rules of social legislation become more
numerous, it is necessary for one who would understand politics
to possess wider experience and more extensive knowledge. Thus
the gulf between the leaders and the rest of the party becomes
ever wider, until the moment arrives in which the leaders lose
all true sense of solidarity with the class from which they have
sprung, and there ensues a new class-division between ex-prole-
tarian captains and proletarian common soldiers.^ When the
workers choose leaders for themselves, they are with their own
hands creating new masters whose principal means of dominion
is found in their better instructed minds.

It is not only in the trade-union organization, in the party
administration, and in the party press, that these new masters
make their influence felt. Whether of working-class or of bour-
geois origin, they also monopolize the party representation in
parliament.

All parties to-day have a parliamentary aim. (There is only
one exception, that of the anarchists, who are almost without
political influence, and who, moreover, since they are the de-
clared enemies of all organization, and who, when they form or-
ganizations, do so in defiance of their own principles, cannot
be considered to constitute a political party in the proper sense
of the term.) They pursue legal methods, appealing to the elec-
tors, making it their first aim to acquire parliamentary influence,
and having for their ultimate goal ''the conquest of political
power." It is for this reason that even the representatives of
the revolutionary parties enter the legislature. Their parlia-
mentary labours, undertaken at first with reluctance,* but sub-

" Cf . Part VI, Chap. I.

*It is well known that in all countries the socialists at first took part
in elections almost in spite of themselves, and full of scruples and theo-
retical reserves which have nothing in common with the conception of par-
liamentarism held by socialist deputies to-day. Thus in Germany, in 1869,
some years after the first participation of the socialists in the elections to
the Eeiehstag of the North German Federation, Wilhelm Liebknecht
thought it necessary to justify this action in special writings, in which
express reference was made to the fact that, notwithstanding this participa-
tion in the elections, parliament was for the socialists an institution of

SUPERIORITY OF LEADERS 83

sequently with increasing satisfaction and increasing profes-
sional zeal, remove them further and further from their elec-
tors. The questions which they have to decide, and whose effec-
tive decision demand on their part a serious work of preparation,
involve an increase in their own technical competence, and a con-
sequent increase in the distance between themselves and their
comrades of the rank and file. Thus the leaders, if they were
not * ' cultured ' ' already, soon become so. But culture exercises
a suggestive influence over the masses.

In proportion as they become initiated into the details of po-
litical life, as they become familiarized with the different aspects
of the fiscal problem and with questions of foreign policy, the
leaders gain an importance which renders them indispensable so
long as their party continues to practise a parliamentary tactic,
and which will perhaps render them important even should this
tactic be abandoned. This is perfectly natural, for the leaders
cannot be replaced at a moment's notice, since all the other
members of the party are absorbed in their every-day occupa-
tions and are strangers to the bureaucratic mechanism.^ This

quite subordinate importance. In Italj, in 1882, when the extension of
the suffrage induced the Italian workers to abandon the policy of ab-
stention from voting which they had hitherto practised, Enrico Bignami
published a similar apologia. Liebknecht wrote: "By our speeches in
the Eeiehstag we cannot diffuse among the masses any truths that could
not be much better diffused in some other way. Then what 'practical'
purpose have we in speaking in the Eeiehstag? None whatever! And to
speak without purpose is folly. We gain no advantage, whilst we incur
the obvious disadvantage of sacrificing our principles, of debasing our seri-
ous political struggle to the level of the parliamentary game, and of en-
couraging the people to cherish the illusion that the Bismarckian Eeieh-
stag is destined to solve the social problem" (Wilhelm Liebknecht, Ueber
die politische Stellung der Sozialdemokratie insbesondere mit Bezug auf den
Beiclistag, Vorwarts-Verlag, Berlin, 1893, p. 15). Bignami 's view was a
very similar one. In recommending electoral activity, he contended that
the socialist deputy should always refrain from active participation in
legislation, and that the only purpose of his presence in parliament should
be to proclaim from this lofty tribune the annihilation of the very privilege
in virtue of which he had himself mounted that tribune (Enrico Big-
nami, II Candidato socialista, Plebe, Milan, 1882, p. 3). It wiU readilly
be understood that so long as the socialist deputies continued to hold such
views of their parliamentary position they could take no part in "practical
politics. ' '

"It must not be supposed that the technical competence of the leaders
is necessarily profound, and it may be quite superficial. It has been
justly observed that the deputies (especially in countries in which the
government is responsible to parliament) have to spend a great deal of

84 POLITICAL PARTIES

special competence, this expert knowledge, which the leader ac-
quires in matters inaccessible, or almost inaccessible, to the mass,
gives him a security of tenure which conflicts with the essential
principles of democracy.

The technical competence which definitely elevates the leaders
above the mass and subjects the mass to the leaders, has its
influence reinforced by certain other factors, such as routine,
the social education which the deputies gain in the chamber,
and their special training in the work of parliamentary commit-
tees.^ The leaders naturally endeavour to apply in the normal
life of the parties the manoeuvres they have learned in the parlia-
mentary environment, and in this way they often succeed in di-
verting currents of opposition to their own dominance.'^ The
parliamentarians are past masters in the art of controlling
meetings, of applying and interpreting rules, of proposing mo-

their valuable time in intrigues, and that just as journalists must often
write, so deputies must often speak, impromptu, discussing subjects with
which they are very little acquainted. "Pour qui examine, sait ecouter
et observe, ce n'est pas uniquement le cabinet actuel qui chancelle; la
desaffection, une certaine desaffection, il ne faut rien exagerer, s'adresse a
I'outil parlementaire lui-meme. Les republicains devraient renoncer, de
leur propre initiative, a ce regime, use de palabres, ou un depute passe tout
son temps k harceler un Ministre lequel emploie tout le sien, meme ses
veilles, a ne pas se laisser desar^onner. Toute minute se depense en recep-
tions, en paroles, et en preparation de discours. Nul n'a le loisir de eon-
troler, de reflechir, de diriger. La qualite premiere d'un depute et d'un
Ministre est de posseder I'organe et le talent d'un avocat capable de causer
de tout, a toute heure, en tons lieux. De ce regime qui a succede au
noble regne de I'epee et qui precede celui du travail, de ce regne de la
parlotte, 1 'opinion a deja donne une forte preuve de degout" (Paul
Brousse, "Petit Meridional," April 12, 1909),

*Cf. Ettore Ciccotti, Montecitorio. Notereile di uno die c'e siato, Mon-
gini, Eome, 1908, pp. 44, 45, and 74. Ciccotti regards the committees as
the seat or as the point of origin of an oUgarehy within parliament, that is
to say, of an oligarchy within an oligarchy.

^ Bearing upon this point, a striking passage may be quoted from the
London correspondence of the socialist " Volksstimme, " of Frankfort-on-
the-Main, of February 2, 1909, concerning the Ninth Congress of the
English Labour Party. ' * All expectations to the contrary notwithstanding,
the two closing days of the Congress were peaceful, and were marked by
no great discussions. This shows above all how united are the principal
party leaders upon matters of tactics; but it shows also the extraordinary
adroitness of the party executive, which had arranged the Agenda in such
a way that it was possible for the chairman to steer the Congress past
all the danger points almost without attracting attention. . . . The first
preventive measure adopted by the standing orders committee was to rule
out of the Agenda certain resolutions whose discussion was regarded as

SUPERIORITY OF LEADERS 85

tions at opportune moments ; in a word, they are skilled in the
use of artifices of all kinds in order to avoid the discussion of
controversial points, in order to extract from a hostile majority
a vote favourable to themselves, or at least, if the worst comes
to the worst, to reduce the hostile majority to silence. There
is no lack of means, varying from an ingenious and often am-
biguous manner of putting the question when the vote is to be
taken, to the exercise on the crowd of a suggestive influence by
insinuations which, while they have no real bearing on the ques-
tion at issue, none the less produce a strong impression. As
referendaries {rapporteurs) and experts, intimately acquainted
with all the hidden aspects of the subject under discussion, many
of the deputies are adepts in the art of employing digressions,
periphrases, and terminological subtleties, by means of which
they surround the simplest matter with a maze of obscurity
to which they alone have the clue. In this way, whether acting
in good faith or in bad, they render it impossible for the masses,
whose "theoretical interpreters" they should be, to follow them,
and to understand them, and they thus elude all possibility of
technical control. They are masters of the situation,^

The intangibility of the deputies is increased and their privi-
leged position is further consolidated by the renown which they
acquire, at once among their political adversaries and among
their own partisans, by their oratorical talent, by their special-
ized aptitudes, or by the charm of their intellectual or even of
their physical personalities. The dismissal by the organised
masses of a universally esteemed leader would discredit the party
throughout the country. Not only would the party suffer from
being deprived of its leaders, if matters were thus pushed to an
extreme, but the political reaction upon the status of the party
would be immeasurably disastrous. Not only would it be neces-
sary to find substitutes without delay for the dismissed leaders,

needless or undesirable." Neither the correspondent nor the editor of the
" Volksstimme " thought it necessary to make any comment on this pro-
cedure.

*It is interesting to note that the developing bourgeoisie of the seven-
teenth century found itself in relation to the monarchy in the same state
of intellectual inferiority as that in which to-day are the democratic
masses in relation to their leaders, and for very similar reasons. The in-
genious Louis XIV expressed the point in the following words: "Touta
I'autorite se trouvait alors [en Tranche Comte] entre les mains du Parle-
ment qui, comme une assemblee de simple bourgeois, serait facile et a
tromper et a intimider" (Dreyss, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 328).

86 POLITICAL PARTIES

who have only become familiar with political affairs after many-
years of arduous and unremitting toil (and where is the party
which between one day and the next would be able to provide
efficient substitutes?) ; but also it has to be remembered that it is
largely to the personal influence of their old parliamentary chiefs
that the masses owe their success in social legislation and in the
struggle for the conquest of general political freedom.

The democratic masses are thus compelled to submit to a
restriction of their own wills when they are forced to give to
their leaders an authority which is in the long run destructive to
the very principle of democracy. The leader's principal source
of power is found in his indispensability. One who is indispen-
sable has in his power all the lords and masters of the earth.^
The history of the working-class parties continually furnishes
instances in which the leader has been in flagrant contradiction
with the fundamental principles of the movement, but in which
the rank and file have not been able to make up their minds to
draw the logical consequences of this conflict, because they feel
that they cannot get along without the leader, and cannot dis-
pense with the qualities he has acquired in virtue of the very
position to which they have themselves elevated him, and be-
cause they do not see their way to find an adequate substitute.
Numerous are the parliamentary orators and the trade-union
leaders who are in opposition to the rank and file at once theo-
retically and practically, and who, none the less, continue to
think and to act tranquilly on behalf of the rank and file. These
latter, disconcerted and uneasy, look on at the behaviour of the
"great men," but seldom dare to throw off their authority and
to give them their dismissal.

The incompetence of the masses is almost universal throughout
the domains of political life, and this constitutes the most solid
foundation of the power of the leaders. The incompetence fur-
nishes the leaders with a practical and to some extent with a
moral justification. Since the rank and file are incapable of look-
ing after their own interests, it is necessary that they should

* One who is indispensable can submit even the hereditary leader to his
will. Eoscher relates that a despotic prince in North Germany, when one
of his best oflScials was offered a position in a neighbouring state, asked
the minister who advised the prince to retain the official in his own
service, "Is he indispensable?" When the minister replied in the affirma-
tive, the prince said, "Let him go then, for I have no use for an indis-
pensable servant" (Eoscher, op. cit., p. 359).

SUPERIORITY OF LEADERS 87

have experts to attend to their affairs. From this point of view '
it cannot he always considered a had thing that the leaders
should really lead. The free election of leaders by the rank and
file presupposes that the latter possess the competence requisite
for the recognition and appreciation of the competence of the
leaders. To express it in French, la designation des capacites
suppose elle-meme la capacite de la designation.

The recognition of the political immaturity of the mass and
of the impossibility of a complete practical application of the
principle of mass-sovereignty, has led certain distinguished
thinkers to propose that democracy should be limited by de-
mocracy itself.^*^ Condorcet wished that the mass should itself
decide in what matters it was to renounce its right of direct con-
trol.^^ This would be the voluntary renunciation of sovereignty
on the part of the sovereign mass. The French Revolution,
which claimed to translate into practice the principle of free
popular government and of human equality, and according to
which the mutable will of the masses was in the abstract the su-
preme law, established through its National Assembly that the
mere proposal to restore a monarchical form of government
should be punishable by death.^^ In a point of such essential
importance the deliberative power of the masses must yield to
the threat of martial law. Even so fanatical an advocate of
popular sovereignty as Victor Considerant was forced to ac-
knowledge that at the first glance the machinery of government
seemed too ponderous for it to appear possible for the people as
such to make the machine work, and he therefore proposed the
election of a group of specialists whose duty it should be to
elaborate the text of the laws which the sovereign people had
voted in principle.^^ Bernstein also denies that the average man
has sufficient political competence to render unrestricted popu-
lar sovereignty legitimate. He considers that a great part of the
questions that have to be decided consist of peculiar problems
concerning which, until all men become living encyclopaedias, a

'" Cf . Part III, Chap. IV.

"Condorcet, Progres de I'Esprit Jiummn, ed. de la Bib. Nat., p. 186.

" Adolphe Thiers, Eistoire de la Bevolution Frangaise, Brockhaus, Leip-
zig, 1846, vol. ii, p. 141. The same spirit of illogical amalgamation of un-
limited popular sovereignty with the most rigid and despotic tutelage ex-
ercised over this alleged sovereign by its leaders, dominates most of the
speeches of the Jacobins. (Cf., for example, (Euvres de B anion, recueillies
et annotees par A. Vermorel, Cournol, Paris, pp. 119 et seq.)

"Victor Considerant, op. cit., p. 41.

88 POLITICAL PARTIES

few only will have interest and knowledge. To attain to an ade-
quate degree of information regarding such questions, so that a
carefully considered judgment can be given, requires a rare
sense of responsibility such as cannot at present be attributed to
the majority of the citizens.^* Even Kautsky could not but rec-
ognize the difficulty of the problem thus presented to the labour
movement; he has pointed out that it is not every province of
social life which is suitable for democratic administration, and
that democracy must be introduced gradually, and will not be
completely realized until those interested shall have become
capable of forming an independent judgment upon all decisive
questions; and he shows that the possibility of realizing demo-
cratic administration will be greater in proportion as the co-
operation of all the persons concerned in the decision of the is-
sues becomes possible.^^

The incompetence of the masses, which is in last analysis al-
ways recognized by the leaders, serves to provide a theoretical
justification for the dominion of these. In England, which owes
to Thomas Carlyle the theory of the supreme importance of
great men, or "heroes," and where that theory has not, as in
Germany, been utterly expelled from the official doctrine of
socialism by the theory of historical materialism, even socialist
thought has been profoundly influenced by the great-men theory.
The English socialists, in fact, including those of the most vari-
ous tendencies, have openly declared that if democracy is to be
effective it must assume the aspect of a benevolent despotism./
"He [the leader] has a scheme to which he works, and he has
the power to make his will effective. "^^ In all the affairs of
management for whose decision there is requisite specialized
knowledge, and for whose performance a certain degree of au-
thority is essential, a measure of despotism must be allowed, and
thereby a deviation from the principles of pure democracy.
From the democratic point of view this is perhaps an evil, but
it is a necessary evil. Socialism does not signify everything hy
the people, but everything for the people.^^ Consequently the

"Eduard Bernstein, Zur Geschichte und Theorie des Sosialismus, Edel-
heim, Berlin, 1910, p. 204.

^'Karl Kautsky, Consumvereine und Arheitertewcgung, Ignaz Brand,
Erste Wiener Volksbuchhandlung, Vienna, 1897, p. 16.

^^ James Eamsay Macdonald, Socialism and Society, Independent Labour
Party, London, 1905, pp. xvi, xvii.

" Ernest Belfort Bax, Essays in Socialism New and Old, Grant Eichards,
London, 1906, pp. 174, 182.

SUPERIORITY OF LEADERS 89

English socialists entrust tlie salvation of democracy solely to
the good will and to the insight of the leaders. The majority
determined by the counting of heads can do no more than lay
down the general lines ; all the rest, which is tactically of greater
importance, devolves iipon the leaders. The result is that quite
a small number of individuals — three, suggests Bax — effectively
controls the policy of the whole party. / Social democracy is not
democracy, but a party fighting to attain to democracy. In
other words, democracy is the end, but not the means.^- The
impossibility of the means' being really democratic is conspicu-
ously shown by the character of the socialist party as an under-
taking endowed with certain financial characteristics, and one
which, though created for ideological aims, depends for its suc-
cess, not only upon the play of economic forces, but also upon
the quality of the persons who have assumed leadership and re-
sponsibility. X

Here, as elsewhere, the saying is true that no undertaking
can succeed without leaders, without managers. In parallelism
with the corresponding phenomena in industrial and commer-
cial life, it is evident that with the growth of working-class
organization there must be an accompanying growth in the
value, the importance, and the authority of the leaders.^^ The
principle of the division of labour creates specialism, and it is
with good reason that the necessity for expert leadership has been
compared with that which gives rise to specialism in the medical
profession and in technical chemistry .2°

Specialism, however, implies authority. Just as the patient
obeys the doctor, because the doctor knows better than the
patient, having made a special study of the human body in
health and disease, so must the political patient submit to the
guidance of his party leaders, who possess a political competence
impossible of attainment by the rank and file.

Thus democracy ends by undergoing transformation into a
form of government by the best, into an aristocracy. At once
materially and morally, the leaders are those who must be re-
garded as the most capable and the most mature.

Is it not, therefore, their duty as well as their right to put

IS Bax ibid.

'" Fausto Pagliari, Le organizzasione e i loro Impiegati, relazione al VII
Congresso Nazionale delle societa di resistenza, Tip. Coop., Turin, 1908, pp.
3, 5, 8.

""Kienzi (H. van Kol), op. cit., p. 250.

rr"

90 POLITICAL PARTIES

themselves at the head, and to lead not merely as representatives
of the party, but as individuals proudly conscious of their own
personal value ? ^^

^Such was in actual fact the thesis of a Milanese politician, Guglielmo
Gambarotta. Of. his article La Funsione dell' JJomo politico, "Eivista
critica del Socialismo," Eome, 1899, anno I, fase. 9, p. 888. Gambarotta,
not having succeeded in becoming a socialist deputy, abandoned the social-
ists to join the bourgeois radicals.

PART TWO
AUTOCRATIC TENDENCIES OF LEADERS

CHAPTER I

THE STABILITY OF LEADERSHIP

No one who studies the history of the socialist movement in Ger-
many can fail to be greatly struck by the stability of the group
of persons leading the party.

In 1870-71, in the year of the foundation of the German Em-
pire, we see two great personalities, those of Wilhelm Lieb-
knecht and August Bebel, emerge from the little group of the
faithful to the new socialist religion to acquire leadership of
the infant movement by their energy and their intelligence.
Thirty years later, at the dawn of the new century, we find them
stiU occupying the position of the most prominent leaders of the
German workers.^ This stability in the party leadership in Ger-
many is very striking to the historian when he compares it with
what has happened in the working-class parties elsewhere in
Europe. The Italian socialist party, indeed, for the same rea-
sons as in Germany, has exhibited a similar stability. Elsewhere,
however, among the members of the Old International, a few in-
dividualities only of minor importance have retained their faith
in socialism intact into the new century. In Germany, it may
be said that the socialist leaders live in the party, gi-ow old and
die in its service.

We shaU subsequently have occasion to refer to the smaUness,
in Germany, of the number of deserters from the socialist camp
to join the other parties.^ In addition to these few who have

^In the minutes of the Congress of Unification held at Gotha in 1875,
at which the existing German socialist party was born, we find among the
seventy-three delegates the following names of persons, who all remained
faithful to the party, and of whom those yet alive are still prominent and
active workers on its behalf: Auer, Bock, Bios, Geib, Grillenberger, Lieb-
knecht, Loewenstein, Dreesbach, A. Kapell, Molkenbuhr, Hoffmann, Bebel,
Motteler and Stolle. (Cf. Protokoll reissued by the Frankfort "Volks-
stimme," Waffenl-ammer des Sozialismus, eine Sammlung alter und neuer
Propagandaschrift€n. Sixth half-yearly issue, January to June, 1906, p.
122.) — The facts recorded on p. 85 show that the stability in the rank and
file of the party is far less marked than the stability of the leadership.

*Vide infra, pp. 107 et seq.

93

94 POLITICAL PARTIES

completely abandoned socialism, there are some, who, after work-
ing on behalf of the party for a time, have left politics to devote
their energies to other fields. There are certain men of letters,
who rose in the party like rockets, to disappear with corre-
sponding rapidity. After a brief and sometimes stormy activity,
they have quitted the rude political stage to return to the peace-
ful atmosphere of the study; and often their retirement from
active political life has been accomplished by a mental estrange-
ment from the world of socialist thought, whose scientific content
they had perhaps never assimilated. Among such may be men-
tioned: Dr. Paul Ernst, at one time editor of the "Volkstrib-
iine"; Dr. Bruno Wille, who led the section of Die Jungen (the
Young Men) to the assault upon the veterans of the party who
were captained by Bebel and Liebknecht (1890) ; Dr. Otto Erich
Hartleben, once dramatic critic of "Vorwarts," but never a
conspicuous member of the party ; Dr. Ludwig Woltmann, dele-
gate of the Rhenish manufacturing town of Barmen to the Con-
gress of Hanover in 1899, where he was engaged in the defence
of Bernstein, and who, after writing some socialist books which
constitute notable contributions to sociology, subsequently de-
voted himself entirely to * ' political anthropology ' ' with a strong
nationalist flavour; ^ Ernst Gystrow (Dr. Willy Hellpach) ; and
several others, for the most part talented and highly cultured
men who have made names for themselves in German belletristic
literature or in German science, but who were not suited for en-
during political activities. It has also happened more than once
in the history of the social democracy that men dominated by a
fixed idea, and inspired by the hope of concentrating upon the
realization of this idea the whole activity of socialist propaganda,
or of simply annexing socialism to the service of this obsession,

'We owe to Paul Ernst a little work on social science, Die Gesellschafi-
licher Produktion des Kapitals bei gesteigerter FroduTctivitat der Arbeit
(1894), and also two literary studies, Lumpeniagasch and Im Charnbre
separee, which belong to socialist imaginative literature. — To the socialist
phase of Otto Erich Hartleben belong the interesting description of social
life TJm den Glauben, ein Tagebuch (known also under the title Die Se-
renyi), published in "Zwei Novellen, " Wilhelm Friedrich, Leipzig, 1887.
— Ludwig Woltmann wrote Die Darwinsche Tlieorie und der Sozialismus,
Beitrag sur (MaturgescMclite der menschlichen Gesellschaft (Diisseldorf,
1889), and Der historisehe Materialismus, Darstellung und Kritih der Marx-
istischen Weltanschauung (Diisseldorf, 1900). His brief but able and bold
defence of Bernstein will be found in the Protolcoll of the Congress of
Hanover (Buehhandlung "Vorwarts," Berlin, 1899, pp. 147 et seq.).

THE STABILITY OF LEADERSHIP 95

have rushed into the party, only to leave it as suddenly with a
chilled enthusiasm as soon as they perceived that they were at-
tempting the impossible. At the LIunich Congress of 1902, the
pastor Georg Welker of Wiesbaden, a member of the sect of
Freireligiosen (Broad Church), inspired by all the ardour of a
neophyte, wished to substitute for the accepted socialist principle
that religion is to be considered as a private matter the tactically
dangerous device Ecrasez Vinfame. Again, at the first Congress
of Socialist Women, which was held contemporaneously with the
Munich Socialist Congress, Dr. Karl von Oppel, who had re-
cently returned from Cape Colony and was a new member of
the socialist party, emphasized the need for the study by social-
ists of foreign languages, and even foreign dialects, to enable
them to come into more intimate contact with their brethren in
other lands, and in his peroration insisted that the use of the
familiar "thou" should be made universal and compulsory in
the intercourse of socialist comrades. Such phenomena are char-
acteristic of the life of all parties, but are especially common
among socialists, since socialism exercises a natural force of at-
traction for cranks of all kinds. Every vigorous political party
which is subversive in its aims is predestined to become for a
time an exercise ground for all sorts of innovators and quack-
salvers, for persons who wish to cure the ills of travailing hu-
manity by the use of their chosen specifics, employed exclusively
in smaller or larger doses — the substitution of friction with oil
for washing with soap and water, the wearing of all-wool under-
clothing, vegetarianism. Christian science, neo-]Malthusianism,
and other fantasies.

More serious than the loss of such casual socialists were the
losses which the party sustained during the period of the early
and fierce application of the anti-socialist laws. At this time, in
the period of reaction from 1840 to 1850, a large proportion of
the leaders were forced to emigrate to America.* Still more seri-
ous were the losses sustained by the party during the Bismarck-
ian regime. Bebel declares that at this time the number of those

* Among these refugees, in the early fifties, was F. A. Sorge, one of
the founders of the "Neue Zeit." When by the influeuce of Mars the
General Council of the International had in 1872 been transferred from
London to New York, Sorge assumed the largely imaginary function of
secretary of the Council, and subsequently, after the extinction of the Old
International, devoted himself entirely to music. Another refugee was the
poet Eobert Schweichel, who returned to Germany after fifty years in
America.

96 POLITICAL PARTIES

who were deprived of their means of livelihood and were forced
to seek work and asylum on foreign soil ran into several hun-
dreds. Of the nucleus of those who before the passing of the
anti-socialist laws which unchained the tempest against the so-
cialists, had worked actively in the party as propagandists, edi-
tors, and deputies, more than eighty left Germany, which most
of them never revisited. ' ' This involved a great draining of our
energies. " ^ In the worst years the exodus was particularly
strong. Thus in the year 1881, just before the elections had dem-
onstrated the indomitable vitality of the German socialist party,
Friedrich Wilhelm Fritzsche (ob. 1905) and Julius Vahlteich,
the critic of Lassalle, both of them at one time leaders in the
party of Lassalle and socialist deputies to the Eeichstag, crossed
the Atlantic never to return.** Notwithstanding the storm which
raged for more than ten years against the socialist party, the
number of those whose socialist activity survived this period of
terror was very large. Obviously, then, in times of comparative
calm the stability of the leaders must be considerably greater.
The author has examined the lists of those present at the con-
gresses held in 1893 by three of the international -;?ocialist parties,
namely, the German social democrats, the Parti Ouvrier (Gues-
distes) in France, and the Italian socialist party, in order to as-
certain the names of those who in the year 1910 were still in the
first rank of the fighters on behalf of socialism in their respective
countries. The results of this enquiry, which cannot claim abso-
lute scientific precision, but which have none the less consider-
able practical value, are as follows. Of the 200 delegates to the
Congress of Cologne, 60 were still fighting in the breach in 1910 ;
of the 93 delegates of the Congress of Paris, 12 ; and of the 311
delegates to the Congress of Reggio Emilia, 102.'^ This shows a
very high percentage of survivals, above all for the proletarian
parties of Italy and Germany, but to a less extent for the Parti

^ ProtoJcoll der VerJiandlungen des Parteitags su Halle a/S., 1890, p. 29.

* Vahlteich, however, though lost to the German labour movement, was
not lost to socialism, for as editor of the German socialist daily published
in New York he continued to play an active part in the life of the party
until his death in 1915,

' Of. the lists of delegates published in the Protokoll iiber die VerJiand-
lungen des Parteitages su Coin (Verlag Vorwarts, Berlin, 1893, pp. 280
et seq.) ; Onsieme Congres National du Parti Ouvrier tenu a Paris du
7 au 9 octobre, 1893 (Imp. Ouvriere S. Delory, Lille, 1893, p. 9) ; II Con-
gresso di Beggio Emilia, Verbale stenografico (Tip. degli Operai [Societa
Cooperativa], Milan, 1893, p. 57).

THE STABILITY OF LEADERSHIP 97

Ouvrier.^ The bourgeois parties of the left on the Continent will
hardly find it possible to boast of a similar continuity in the
personnel of their leaders great and small. In the working-class
parties we find that the personnel of the officials is even more
stable than that of the leaders in general. The causes of this
stability, as will be shown in the sequel, depend upon a complex
of numerous phenomena.

"b( Long tenure of office involves dangers for democracy. For
this reason those organizations which are anxious to retain their
democratic essence make it a rule that all the offices at their dis-
posal shall be conferred for brief periods only.® If we take into
account the number of offices to be filled by universal suffrage
and the frequency of elections, the American citizen is the one
who enjoys the largest measure of democracy. In the United
States, not only the legislative bodies, but all the higher adminis-
trative and judicial officials are elected by popular vote. It has
been calculated that every American citizen must on an average
exercise his function as a voter twenty-two times a year.^° The
members of the socialist parties in the various countries must
to-day exercise similarly extensive electoral activities: nomina-
tion of candidates for parliament, county councils, and munici-

^ It would obviously be altogether erroneous to deduce from this the
existence in the French national character of any particular fickleness or
instability. The reasons for the comparative instability of the French,
leadership are connected with various tendencies of historical tradition,
and political democracy in France, the discussion of which would lead
us too far from our subject.

^ The third French Eepublie, wishing to guard against the danger of a
military dictatorship and a new Csesarism, has decreed that no general
shall remain in command of an army corps for more than three years in
succession. — In periods especially inspired with democratic ideas the very
chambers of commerce have been moved to similar preventive measures.
In the time of Napoleon, the Cologne chamber of commerce made a rule
that all the officers must be re-elected annually, except the president, who
must be changed every three months. It soon appeared, however, that the
strict application of such a system was impossible. The frequent changes
in the presidency were extremely injurious to the conduct of business,
and deprived the chamber of commerce of the services of its best elements,
thus reducing all reformatory energy to impotence (Mathieu Schwann,
GeschicMe der Kolner EandelsMmmer, Neubner, Cologne, 1906, p. 444).
SchmoUer considers that this election to offices in rotation is a peculiar
blessing of urban civilization, municipal in its origin. (Cf. SchmoUer, Um-
risse und Untersuchungen sur Verfassungs-, Verwaltungs- und Wirtschafts-
gescUcMe, 1898, p. 291.)

"Werner Sombart, Warum giebt es in der Vereinigten Staaten Tceinen
Sosialismu^?, J. C. B. Mohr (Siebeck), Tiibingen, 1906, p. 43.

98 POLITICAL PARTIES

palities ; nomination of delegates to local and national party con-
gresses; election of committees; re-election of the same; and so
on, da capo. In almost all the socialist parties and trade unions
the officers are elected for a brief term, and must be re-elected at
least every two years. The longer the tenure of office, the greater
becomes the influence of the leader over the masses and the
greater therefore his independence. Consequently a frequent
repetition of election is an elementary precaution on the part of
democracy against the virus of oligarchy.

Since in the democratic parties the leaders owe their position
to election by the mass, and are exposed to the chance of being
dispossessed at no distant date, when forced to seek re-election, it
would seem at first sight as if the democratic working of these
parties were indeed secured. A persevering and logical appli-
cation of democratic principles should in fact get rid of all per-
sonal considerations and of all attachment to tradition. Just as
in the political life of constitutional states the ministry must
consist of members of that party which possesses a parliamentary
majority, so also in the socialist party the principal offices ought
always to be filled by the partisans of those tendencies which
have prevailed at the congresses.^^ Thus the old party digni-
taries ought always to yield before youthful forces, before those
who have acquired that numerical preponderance which is repre-
sented by at least half the membership plus one. It must, more-
over, be a natural endeavour not to leave the same comrades too
long in occupation of important offices, lest the holders of these
should stick in their grooves, and should come to regard them-
selves as God-given leaders. But in those parties which are sol-
idly organized, the actual state of affairs is far from correspond-
ing to this theory. The sentiment of tradition, in co-operation
with an instinctive need for stability, has as its result that the
leadership represents always the past rather than the present.
Leadership is indefinitely retained, not because it is the tangible
expression of the relationships between the forces existing in
j;he party at any given moment, but simply because it is already
constituted. It is through gregarious idleness, or, if we may em-
ploy the euphuism, it is in virtue of the law of inertia, that the
leaders are so often confirmed in their office as long as they like.
These tendencies are particularly evident in the German social
democracy, where the leaders are practically irremovable. The

" This has recently been laid down as a rule by the Dutch socialist party.

THE STABILITY OF LEADERSHIP 99

practice of choosing an entirely new set of leaders every two
years ought long ago to have become general in the socialist party,
as prototype of all democratic parties. Yet, as far as the Ger-
man socialists are concerned, not merely does no such practice
exist, but any attempt to introduce it provokes great discontent
among the rank and file. It is true that one of the fundamental
rules of the party, voted at the Mainz congress in 1900, lays
down that at every annual congress the party must ''renew/' by
ballot and by absolute majority, the whole of the executive com-
mittee, consisting of seven persons (two presidents, two vice-
presidents, two secretaries, and a treasurer). This would be the
true application of the democratic principle, but so little is it
commonly observed in practice, that at every congress there are
distributed to the delegates who are about to elect their new lead-
ers printed ballot papers bearing the names of all the members
of the retiring committee. This proves, not merely that the re-
election of these leaders is taken as a matter of course, but even
that a certain pressure is exercised in order to secure their re-
election. It is true that in theory every elector is free to erase
the printed names and to write in others, and that this is all
the easier since the vote is secret. None the less, the printed
ballot paper remains an effective expedient. There is a French
phrase, corriger la fortune; this method enables the leaders to
corriger la democratie.^^ A change in the list of names, although
this is simply the exercise of an electoral right established by the
rules, is even regarded as a nuisance by most of the delegates,
and is censured by them should it occur. This was characteristi-
cally shown at the Dresden congress in 1903.^^ When the report
spread through the congress that the revolutionary socialists of
Berlin intended to remove from among the names on the ballot
paper the name of Ignaz Auer, of whom they disapproved on
account of his revisionist tendencies (an accusation which they
subsequently repelled with indignation), the widespread anger
aroused by the proposed sacrilege sufficed to overthrow the
scheme.^*

It is in this manner that the leaders of an eminently demo-
cratic party, nominated by indirect suffrage, prolong throughout

^Eegarding identical practices employed by the "party machine" in
America, cf. Ostrogorsky, La Devwcratie et I' Organisation des Partis po-
Utiques, Caiman Levy, Paris, 1903, vol. ii, p. 200.

"See p. 62, note 6.

" Cf , ProtoJcoll des Parteitages su Dresden, pp. 361, 373 et seq., 403.

100 POLITICAL PARTIES

their lives the powers with which they have once been invested.
The re-election demanded by the rules becomes a pure formality.
The temporary commission becomes a permanent one, and the
tenure of office an established right. The democratic leaders are
more firmly established in their seats than were ever the leaders
of an aristocratic body. Their term of office comes greatly to
exceed the mean duration of ministerial life in monarchical
states. It has been calculated that in the German Empire the
average official life of a minister of state is four years and three
months. In the leadership, that is to say in the ministry, of the
socialist party we see the same persons occupying the same posts
for forty years in succession.^^ Naumann writes of the demo-
cratic parties: "Here changes in the leading offices occur less
rapidly than in those of the secretaries of state and of the min-
isters. The democratic method of election has its own peculiar
loyalty. As far as individual details are concerned it is incalcu-
lable, and yet on general lines we can count upon its activity
with more certainty than upon the policy of princes. Through
all democracy there runs a current of slow-moving tradition, for
the ideas of the masses change only step by step and by gentle
gradations. "While in the monarchical organism there is an
abundance of ancient forms, we find no less in the democratic
organism that the longer it exists the more does it become domi-
nated by tenaciously established phrases, programmes, and cus-
toms. It is not until new ideas have been in progress up and
down the country for a considerable time that these ideas can
penetrate the constituted parties through the activity of par-
ticular groups that have adopted them, or as an outcome of a
spontaneous change of opinion among the rank and file. This nat-
ural tenacity of parliaments which are the outcome of popular
election is indisputable, be it advantageous or disadvantageous
to the community. ' '^^ In democratically constituted bodies else-
where than in Germany a similar phenomenon is manifest. In
proof of this, reference may be made to a paragraph in the rules
drawn up on February 3, 1910, by the Italian General Confeder-
ation of Labour as to the proclamation of the general strike.

""We hear a great deal of tlie eapriciousness and fickleness of popular
favour. But it is certain that a leader who does his duty conscientiously i3
more secure in his position in the labour movement than is a minister in
the Prussian monarchy founded upon the grace of God" (Eduard Bern-
stein, Die Arieiteriewegung, ed. cit., p. 149).

"Friedrich Naumann, DetnoTcratie und Kaisertum, ed. cit., p. 53.

THE STABILITY OF LEADERSHIP 101

The rule begins by declaring, in perfect conformity with demo-
cratic principles, that the declaration of a general strike must
always be preceded by a referendum to the branches. To the
terms of this referendum were to be appended the minutes of
the session at which the Confederation of Labour had decided to
submit the question. But the rule adds that if there should be
disagreement between the executive council of the Federation
and the results of the reference to the branches, if, for instance,
the council had rejected the general strike while the referendum
showed that the rank and file favoured it, this difference must
not be taken to imply a vote of censure on the leaders.^^ This
shows that in the working-class organizations of Italy ministerial
responsibility is not so strongly established as in the Italian
state, where the ministry feels that it must resign if, when it
has brought forward a bill, this bill is rejected by the majority
of the Chamber, As far as concerns England, we learn from
the Webbs that the stability of the officials in the labour organi-
zations is superior to that of the employees in the civil service.
In the Amalgamated Association of Operative Cotton-Spinners
we actually find that there is a rule to the effect that the officials
shall remain in office indefinitely, as long as the members are
satisfied with them.^^

An explanation of this phenomenon is doubtless to be found in
the force of tradition, whose influence assimilates, in this respect,
the revolutionary masses to the conservatives. A contributory
cause is one to which we have already referred, the noble human
sentiment of gratitude.^^ The failure to re-elect a comrade who
has assisted in the birth of the party, who has suffered with it
many adversities, and has rendered it a thousand services, would
be regarded as a cruelty and as an action to be condemned. Yet
it is not so much the deserving comrade as one who is tried and
expert whom the collectivity approves above all others, and whose
collaboration must on no account be renounced. Certain indi-
viduals, simply for the reason that they have been invested with
determinate functions, become irremovable, or at least difficult
to replace. Every democratic organization rests, by its very na-
ture, upon a division of labour. . But wherever division of labour
prevails, there is necessarily specialization, and the specialists
become indispensable. This is especially true of such states aa

""Stampa," February 3, 1910.

"Sidney and Beatrice Webb, op. cit., vol. i, p. 16.

"Cf. supra, pp. 60 et seq.

102 POLITICAL PARTIES

Germany, where the Prussian spirit rules, where, in order that
the party may be safely steered through all the shoals and break-
ers that result from police and other official interference and
from the threats of the penal laws, the party can be assured of
a certain continuity only when a high degree of stability charac-
terizes the leadership.

There is an additional motive in operation. In the working-
class organization, whether founded for political or for economic
ends, just as much as in the life of the state, it is indispensable
that the official should remain in office for a considerable time,
so that he may familiarize himself with the work he has to do,
may gain practical experience, for he cannot become a useful
official until he has been given time to work himself into his new
office. Moreover, he will not devote himself zealously to his task,
he will not feel himself thoroughly at one with the aim he is in-
tended to pursue, if he is likely to be dismissed at any moment ;
he needs the sense of security provided by the thought that noth-
ing but circumstances of an unforeseen and altogether extraor-
dinary character will deprive him of his position. Appointment
to office for short terms is democratic, but is quite unpractical
alike on technical and psychological grounds. Since it fails to
arouse in the employee a proper sense of responsibility, it throws
the door open to administrative anarchy. In the ministries of
lands under a parliamentary regime, where the whole official
apparatus has to suffer from its subordination to the continuous
changes in majorities, it is well known that neglect and disorder
reign supreme. Where the ministers are changed every few
months, every one who attains to power thinks chiefly of making
a profitable use of that power while it lasts. Moreover, the con-
fusion of orders and regulations which results from the rapid
succession of different persons to command renders control ex-
traordinarily difficult, and when abuses are committed it is easy
for those who are guilty to shift the responsibility on to other
shoulders. ''Eotation in office/' as the Americans call it, no
doubt corresponds to the pure principle of democracy. Up to a
certain point it is adapted to check the formation of a bureau-
cratic spirit of caste. But this advantage is more than compen-
sated by the exploitive methods of ephemeral leaders, with all
their disastrous consequences. On the other hand, one of the
great advantages of monarchy is that the hereditary prince, hav-
ing an eye to the interests of his children and his successors, pos-
sesses an objective and permanent interest in his position, and

THE STABILITY OF LEADERSHIP 103

almost always abstains from a policy which would hopelessly
impair the vital energies of his country, just as the landed pro-
prietor usually rejects methods of cultivation which, while pro-
viding large immediate returns, would sterilize the soil to the
detriment of his heirs.

Thus, no less in time of peace than in time of war, the rela-
tionships between different organizations demand a certain de-
gree of personal and tactical continuity, for without such con-
tinuity the political authority of the organization would be im-
paired. This is just as true of political parties as it is true of
states. In international European politics, England has always
been regarded as an untrustworthy ally, for her history shows
that no other country has ever been able to confide in agree-
ments concluded with England. The reason is to be found in
this, that the foreign policy of the United Kingdom is largely
dependent upon the party in power, and party changes occur
with considerable rapidity. Similarly, the party that changes its
leaders too often runs the risk of finding itself unable to con-
tract useful alliances at an opportune moment. The two gravest
defects of genuine democracy, its lack of stability (perpetuum
mobile democraticuni) and its difficulty of mobilization, are de-
pendent on the recognized right of the sovereign masses to take
part in the management of their own affairs.

In order to bind the leader to the will of the mass and to re-
duce him to the level of a simple executive organ of the mass,
certain primitive democracies have at all times sought to apply,
in addition to the means previously enumerated,-^ measures of
moral coercion. In Spain, the patriotic revolutionary Junta of
1808 insisted that thirty proletarians should accompany the gen-
eral who was to negotiate with the French, and these compelled
him, in opposition to his own convictions, to reject all Napo-
leon's proposals.^^ In modern democratic parties there still pre-
vails the practice, more or less general according to the degree
of development these parties have attained, that the rank and
file send to the congresses delegates who are fettered by definite
instructions, the aim of this being to prevent the delegate from
giving upon any decisive question a vote adverse to the opinion
of the majority of those whom he represents. This precaution
may be efficacious in certain eases, where the questions con-
cerned are simple and clear. But the delegate, since he has no

' Supra, p. 28. " Eoscher, op. cit., p. 392.

104 POLITICAL PARTIES

freedom of choice, is reduced to the part of puppet, and can-
not allow himself to be influenced by the arguments he hears at
the congress or by new matters of fact which are brought to
light in the course of the debate. But the result is, that not only
is all discussion rendered superfluous in advance, but also that
the vote itself is often falsified, since it does not correspond to
the real opinions of the delegates. Of late fixed instructions have
less often been given to the delegate, for it has become manifest
that this practice impairs the cohesion so urgently necessary to
every party, and provokes perturbations and uncertainties in its
leadership.

- In proportion as the chiefs become detached from the mass
they show themselves more and more inclined, when gaps in
their own ranks have to be filled, to effect this, not by way of
popular election, but by co-optation, and also to increase their
own effectives wherever possible, by creating new posts upon
their own initiative. There arises in the leaders a tendency to
isolate themselves, to form a sort of cartel, and to surround
themselves, as it were, with a wall, within which they will admit
those only who are of their own way of thinking. Instead of
allowing their successors to be appointed by the choice of the
rank and file, the leaders do all in their power to choose these
successors for themselves, and to fill up gaps in their own ranks
directly or indirectly by the exercise of their own volition.

This is what we see going on to-day in all the working-class
organizations which are upon a solid foundation. In a report
presented to the seventh congress of Italian labour organizations,
held at Modena in 1908, we find it stated that the leaders must
recognize capable men, must choose them, and must in general
exercise the functions of a government.^^ In England these
desiderata have already received a practical application, for in
certain cases the new employees of the organization are directly
chosen by the old officials.^^ The same thing happens in Ger-
many, where about one-fifth of the trade-union employees are
appointed by the central power. Moreover, since the trade-union
congresses are composed almost exclusively of employees, the
only means of which the individual organized workers can avail
themselves for the expression of their personal opinions is to be

^^Fausto Pagliari, Le Organissasioni e i loro Impiegati, Tip. Coop.,
Turin, 1908, p. 8.

^^ Sidney and Beatrice Webb, The History of Trade Unionism, new
edition, Longmans, London, 1907, vol. i, p. 87.

THE STABILITY OF LEADERSHIP 105

found in contributions to the labour press.^* In the French la-
bour movement, which claims to be the most revolutionary of all,
the secretary of the Confederation Generale du Travail possesses
the right of nomination when there is a question of electing new
representatives to the executive committee of the federation. He
exercises this right by sending to those Bourses du Travail which
are not represented on the executive, a list of the comrades whom
he considers suitable for this position, recommending the elec-
tion of these. -^

In the German socialist party, the individual Landesvorstdnde,
or provincial committees, and the central executive claim the
right of veto over the selection of candidates. But this right of
veto gives them a privilege of an essentially oligarchical char-
acter, elevating the committees to the rank of a true government,
and depriving the individual branches of one of the fundamental
rights of all democracy, the right of individual liberty of action.^^
In Holland, again, the socialist candidatures for parliament must
be approved by the party executive, and this executive is as ir-
removable as that of the German party. It rarely happens that
an old member of the executive whose term of office has expired
fails to obtain re-election should he desire it. It is in Holland
also that we see such conspicuous pluralism among the party
officials.

In the nomination of candidates for election we find, in addi-

** Cf . Paul Kampffmeyer, Die EntwicTclung der deutschen GewerJcschaften,
"Annalen fiir soziale Politik u. Gesetzg.," vol. i, No. 1, p. 114.

^ Fernand Pelloutier, Eistoire des Bourses du Travail, Schleiclier Freres,
Paris, 1902, p. 150.

^ W. Heine writes in this connection : ' ' We desire that the people should
rule themselves; our party programme demands that in the most impor-
tant and most difficult problem the people should decide by direct voting
and direct legislation; is it right then that in the most immediate and
simplest of questions, namely, in what men is the people to put its con-
fidence, the decision of the people should be subject to the goodwill and
pleasure of a superior authority? ... If the party officials are allowed
to decide for themselves who is to enter their charmed circle, the danger
arises that fresh blood and new ideas will more and more be refused admit-
tance, and that the party will tend to undergo that ossification which is
characteristic of all oligarchies and bureaucracies. Further consequences
of such a tendency are shown in the slackening of the spirit of initiative
and in the decline of interest in the intellectual life of the party, and also
in an inclination to an obstinate or unreflective cling^g to traditional
formulas, iu a tendency to stick in a groove. From this point of view, a
good bureaucracy is more dangerous than a bad one" (Wolfgang Heine,
op. eit., pp. 282, 284).

10^ POLITICAL PARTIES

tion, another grave oligarcliical phenomenon, nepotism. The
choice of the candidates almost always depends upon a little
clique, consisting of the local leaders and their assistants, which
suggests suitable names to the rank and file.^'^ In many cases
the constituency comes to be regarded as a family property.^^ In
Italy, although democratic principles are greatly honoured, we
not infrequently find that when a representative dies, or can no
longer continue in office, the suffrages of the constituency are
transferred without question to his son or to his younger brother,
so that the position is kept in the family.

Those who love paradox may be inclined to regard this process
as the first symptom marking the passage of democracy from a
system of plebiscitary Bonapartism to one of hereditary mon-
archy.

^"Trois ou quatre personnes au plus redigent les programmes et choi-
sissent les noms des futurs representants dans chaque departement. Ces
personnes font de la politique una carriere: elles veulent surtout et avant
tout, je ne dirai pas le pouvoir, mais les places. Ces politiciens trouvent
plus commode de se faire agents electoraux pour arriver aux fonctions
publiques que de s'y preparer par de longues etudes." This description,
of the conditions of French political life is from the pen of Germain,
quoted by J. Novicow, Conscience et Volonte sociales, Giard et Briere, Paris,
1897, p. 65.

^ Cf . supra, p. 13.

CHAPTER II

THE FINANCIAL POWER OF THE LEADERS AND OF

THE PARTY

In the German socialist party desertion and treason on the part
of the leaders have been rare. This is conspicuous in contrast
with what has happened in the French socialist party, especially
as regards the parliamentary group of the latter. The elections
of August 20, 1893, sent to the Palais Bourbon six socialist depu-
ties: Paulin ]\Iery, Alphonse Humbert, A. Abel Hovelacque,
Alexandre Millerand;, Pierre Richard, and Ernest Roche. Of
these, one only, the distinguished linguist and anthropologist,
Hovelacque, remained faithful to the party to his death; the
other five are now declared enemies of the socialist party. The
part played by Millerand in socialism, a great one as is well
known, came to an end in 1904. In his electoral address of May,
1906, the term "socialist" had passed into the background; he
was running in opposition to the official socialist candidate^ the
sociologist Paul Laf argue, the son-in-law of Marx; his role was
now that of an anti-coUectivist and patriotic bourgeois reformer.
The other socialist ex-deputies in the above list had deserted their
colours at an even earlier date. The trifling political shock
which is associated with the name of General Boulanger sufficed
to overthrow the house of cards which represented the socialist
convictions of these warriors on behalf of the revolutionary prole-
tariat of France. To-day they are all vowed to the service of
the clerico-nationalist reaction. Paulin Mery became one of the
Boulangist leaders ; in May, 1906, when, in the second ballot, he
was opposed to the bourgeois radical, Ferdinand Buisson, the
socialists of his constituency unhesitatingly cast their votes in
favour of his opponent. At the time of the Dreyfus affair, Al-
phonse Humbert was one of the most ardent defenders of the
general staff of the army. Ernest Roche, at one time a disciple
of Auguste Blanqui, and then, in conjunction with Edouard Vail-
lant, one of the most noted leaders of the Blanquists, is now the
lieutenant of Henri Rochefort ; in a recent parliamentary election
in the seventeenth arrondissement of Paris he was defeated by

107

108 POLITICAL PARTIES

the reformist socialist Paul Brousse, although Brousse, the some-
time anarchist and theoretical father of the propaganda by deed
in western Europe, had recently forfeited the good-will of the
more revolutionary section of the workers (Brousse, as President
of the Paris municipal council, had received Alfonso XIII as
guest at the Hotel de Ville, and this conduct was hardly in con-
formity with socialist principles). It is true that even to-day
Eoche stiU belongs to a Parti Blanquiste ni Dieu ni Maitre which
announces week by week in the " Intransigeant " meetings of a
more or less private character, but this party is really fictitious,
for though it has a few branches it does not count in political
life; in all practical political questions this petty group works
hand in hand with the antisemites and the nationalists, and in
matters of theory, whenever Roche has occasion to allude to them,
he proclaims himself le champion incorruptible de la Bepuhlique,
du Socialisme et de la Patrie, his anti-capitalism being extremely
tame, but his jingoism fanatical.^

In contrast with this, the German socialist party shares with
the Italian and the Belgian parties the good fortune of possess-
ing faithful and devoted leaders. The leadership of the German
party has been again and again reinforced by valuable acces-
sions from the other parties of the left, such as August Bebel,
the bourgeois democrat, Max Quarck and Paul Bader, of the
"Frankfurter Zeitung," Paul Gohre and Max Maurenbrecher,
who had previously founded the national socialist party in op-
position to the socialists. On the other hand, it has suffered no
extensive losses of significant personalities by desertion to the
bourgeois camp. The only exceptions to this generalization re-
late to leaders of minor importance, such as Max Lorenz,^ ex-
editor of the ' ' Leipzige Volkszeitung, ' ' who subsequently passed
through the gate of national socialism to gain a secure position
ias editor of the * ' Antisozialdemokratische Korrespondenz ' ' ; the
young Count Ludwig Eeventlow, who in 1906 became a deputy
in the antisemite interest ; and a few other academic personalities
of minor importance,^ besides one or two exceptional converted

*Cf. Michels, Die deuische Sozialdemocratie im internationalen Ver-
iande, "Arch. f. Sozialw., " vol. xxv, pp. 213 et seq.

' Max Lorenz has written a number of small socialist works, and is author
of the reformist book Die marxistische Sosialdemokratie, Wiegand, Leipzig,
1896.

* Among these may be mentioned: Louis Viereek, formerly an oflScial
ip. the Prussian ^ervice^ subsequently socialist deputy to the Eeichstag, and

FIDELITY OF LEADERS 109

proletarians, such as the basket-maker Fischer.* It would not be
right to regard as treason in the strict sense of the term a simple
passage from the socialist party properly so-called to some other
form of militant socialism, such as happened in the case of social-
ists as fervent and convinced as the deputy Johann Most, the
noted binder of Augsburg, and Wilhelm Hasselmann, the chem-
ist, another deputy, who after 1890 broke openly with the party,
to adhere first to anti-parliamentary socialism and subsequently
to anarchism. To speak of these men as ''deserters" would be to
identify the notion of desertion of the organized party with de-
sertion of the idea of working-class emancipation. But even if
we count as deserters from socialism those who have gone over
to the ranks of the anarchists, we are compelled to admit that
among the apostates from the German socialist party there has
not been one of those who have occupied a leading position in
the party.

The fighting proletariat in Germany has hitherto been spared
the spectacle of its former representatives seated on the Govern-
ment benches surrounded by the enemies of the socialists. There
has in Germany been no such figure as Aristide Briand, yester-
day advocate of the general strike and counsel for the defence
of men prosecuted for anti-militarism, who had expressly de-
clared himself in full sympathy with the anti-militarist theory
plutot I'insurrection que la guerre, and to-day, as Minister of
Public Instruction, approving no less vigorously and explicitly

now correspondent of bourgeois newspapers in New York; Max Pfund,
at one time an ardent socialist, author of TJnsere TaTctik, ein ehrliches Wort
zur Kldrung (Mauerer & Dimmiak, Berlin, 1891 — which closes with the
words, "Let us see to it that we have a firm standing-ground when the
storm begins to rage"), now on the staff of the "Lokal Anzeiger," of
Berlin; Dr. Franz Liitgenau, who formerly played a leading part as a so-
cialist in the political life of Westphalia, and was the author of a number
of books published by Dietz, and of a work entitled Darwin und der Staat
(Thomas, Leipzig), but now on the staff of a bourgeois journal at Dort-
mund; Heinrieh Oberwinder, the author, one of the original disciples of
Lassalle, but who, during the days of the anti-socialist law was unmasked
at Paris as a spy of the German government. (Cf. Franz Mehring, Ge-
schichte der deutschen Sosialdemokratie, Dietz, Stuttgart, 1904, 2nd ed.,
vol. ii, p. 300) ; Fernand Bueb, of Miilhausen, elected in 1893, when
twenty-eight years of age, as socialist deputy to the Keichstag, but who
has since deserted the party and disappeared from the political stage.

*In order to make a parade of his proletarian origin, Fischer, who has
now joined the conservative party, ostentatiously signs his articles "Fischer,
the Basket-Maker."

110 POLITICAL PARTIES

the measures of repression enforced by his colleagues in the Cab-
inet against anti-militarists. Germany has not known a John
Burns, who as a labour leader in 1886 played a prominent part
in the organization of huge demonstrations of the unemployed,
at which open reference was made to the possible need for de-
stroying the palaces and sacking the shops, and whose activities
had led to a panic in the bourgeois world of the English capital,
but who a few years later as President of the Local Government
Boardj when a motion was brought forward in Parliament at the
instance of the Labour Representation Committee demanding the
intervention of Parliament on behalf of the unemployed, replied
that he was neither a public-house politician nor a soft-hearted
philanthropist prepared to squander the money of hard-working
citizens upon the so-called unemployed, and who advised the
workers to save their money in good times and not to spend it
upon unworthy objects. Such disillusionments, experienced at
the hands of men in whose sincerity and firmness of character the
organized workers had an ingenuous confidence, have a politically
discouraging and morally enervating effect. They tend to lead
the workers to indifferentism, or to one-sided specializations, such
as the new unionism, or an exclusive belief in the co-operative
movement, or, again, to certain forms of libertarian aspiration,
and to alienate them from the thought of political organization,
and from a considered and measured parliamentary activity. We
see this, above all, in France, where the case of Briand was
merely a sequel to that of Millerand, and the case of Millerand
a sequel, if you will, to the case of Louis Blanc, and where the
great mass of the manual workers are split up into the two sec-
tions of those who advocate the most defiant abstentionism and
of those whose minds are dominated by the spirit which the
French aptly term jemenficMsme.^ The fact that the socialist

^ Quite recently a number of the most eminent socialist leaders in France
have passed over into the governmental camp and are thus in violent con-
flict with their former comrades. Among these may be mentioned Eene
Viviani, now Minister of State; the university professor V. Augagneur, at
one time socialist mayor of Lyons and subsequently governor of the Island
of Madagascar; Gabriel Deville, disciple of Marx, and one of the founders
of the Parti Ouvrier; Alexandre Zevaes, formerly one of the ablest of
the Guesdist leaders and at that time a strict Marxist; Joseph Sarraute;
and many others. De Pressense writes very truly, ' * Combien d 'hommes n 'a-
t-elle pas vus [la classe ouvriere fran^aise], qui, apres lui avoir prodigue lea
paroles de revolte, apres avoir seme les excitations, apres avoir pratique
sans relache le verbalisme revolutionnaire, a peine arrives au pouvoir,

FINANCIAL POWER OF LEADERS 111

parties of Germany, Italy, and Belgium have hitherto been free
from the disturbing and demoralizing effects of such episodes
furnishes the chief if not the only reason for the unlimited and
often blind confidence which is displayed, as no unprejudiced ob-
server of the members of these parties can fail to notice, in the
"tried and trusted" leaders. In Germany, indeed, the author-
ity which this spirit gives to the party leaders, and which con-
tinually accentuates the tendency towards centralization, is enor-
mously reinforced by the spirit of organization, by the intense
need for guidance, which characterizes the German proletariat,
and also by the comparative poverty of the party in individuals
of intellectual pre-eminence and of those possessing economic in-
dependence. Owing to these exceptional conditions, the leaders
are preserved from the disintegrating influence of personal and
tactical dissensions, which would otherwise have led them into
conflicts with the masses of the party similar to those that have
raged with such violence in Italy and in Holland, notwithstand-
ing the stability and the authoritative position of the socialist
leaders in these latter countries.

It may be said of the German socialist leaders that they have
not yet lost contact with the masses; that there stiU prevails
complete harmony between the form and the content of their
tactics even when there should be a conflict between these ; that
the community of ideas between leaders and led has not yet been
broken; and, to sum up, that the executive committee of the
party, and also (though perhaps less perfectly) the parliamen-
tary socialist group, still represent the average opinion of the
comrades throughout the country. The confidence which the
organized German workers give to those that represent them in
the complex game of politics is based upon the security which
the leaders offer at once from the moral and the political point
of view. This security incontrovertibly exists. The manner in
which the masses entrust their interests to the leaders is, histori-
cally at least, legitimate and explicable. But the causes of the

se sont eyniquement retournes contre leur propre passe et contre leurs dupes,
leur ont fait un crime d 'avoir garde f oi a leurs predications et se sont f aits
les ordonnateurs sans merci et sans serupule des hauts et basses ceuvres
de la reaction sociale. . . . II me semble pourtant que rien ne serait plus
deraisonnable et plus funeste que de se livrer, pour cette cause, a une apa-
thie sceptique, a un pococurantisme gouailleur, qui ferait le jeu de ces
viles politiciens au moins autant que le fit jadis la naive credulite d'un
enthousiasme sans critique" (Francis de Pressense, L' Affaire Vurant, ou
la nouvelle Affaire Dreyfus, "he Mouvement Soeialiste," xiii, No. 227).

112 POLITICAL PARTIES

stability of the leaders are naturally, like all causes, complex.
Among various explanations, it has been suggested that all the
virtue of the German labour leaders lies in the fact that they
have never been exposed to serious temptations, so that it resem-
bles that of a young woman who has never been courted. There
is a certain element of truth in this explanation, in so far as we
have to do with that special political virtue which consists in
the faithful defence of the party flag. In a state where parlia-
mentary government does not exist, where the ministers of state
are chosen by the sovereign from among the leading officials of
the administration without any regard to the parliamentary ma-
jority, and where consequently no direct path to office is open to
popular representatives, the possibility of intellectual corruption,
that is to say of a more or less complete change of front on the
part of the socialist leaders under the influence of a desire for
ministerial office, is ipso facto excluded, just as is excluded an
adhesion to the party of bourgeois social reform of the revolu-
tionary socialists who aim at changing the very base of the ex-
isting economic order. On the other hand, Arturo Labriola,
who has followed the German movement with keen interest and
lively sympathy, is undoubtedly right in his caustic prediction
that as soon as the day comes when the German Government is
willing to afford itself the luxury of a lukewarm liberal ministry,
since the socialists are really not difficult to satisfy, the ''reform-
ist infection" will spread far even in Germany. He adds that
the germs of this infection are already widely diffused.^

Yet although it is true that the feudal structure of the Ger-
man Empire, which is still reflected in the laws and in the col-
lective mentality of the country, imposes necessary limits upon
the ambition of the labour leaders, it must be admitted that the
fact we are now considering does not find an adequate explana-
tion in the mere lack of temptation. Moreover, temptation, in
the vulgar and material sense of the term, is no more lacking in
Germany than elsewhere. No government, however autocratic,
has ever neglected a chance of corrupting the austere virtue of
the leaders of any movement dangerous to authority, by the
distribution of a portion of those secret service funds which
every state has at its disposal, and which have been voted by
the popular representatives themselves. Nevertheless, it may be
affirmed that the leaders of the German labour movement, even

* Arturo Labriola, Eiforme e Mvdlusione Sociale, Soc. Edit. Milan, Milan,
1904, p. 17.

FIDELITY OF LEADERS 113

if tliey do not possess that evangelical morality of which, we find
so many examples in the early days of the Italian labour move-
ment, have yet always resisted any attempts to corrupt their in-
tegrity by bribes. "We need hardly reckon as an exception, the
ease which has not yet been fully cleared up of the president of
the Allgemeiner Deutsche Arbeiterverein, Johann Baptist von
Schweitzer, in the year 1872, for it seems probable that the fiery
Bebel, who secured Schweitzer's condemnation and expulsion
from the party, was in reality altogether in the wrongJ Even
the subordinates in the leadership of the party^ those whom we
may speak of as the non-commissioned officers, have usually
proved altogether inaccessible to the blandishments of the police.
They have sometimes accepted bribes, but always to hand them
over at once to "Vorwarts" or some other socialist paper, in
which there has then appeared an invitation to the owner of the
money to come and claim it personally within a certain number
of days, since if unclaimed it would be handed over to the party
funds.

The unshaken fidelity of the German socialist leaders rests
upon powerful reasons, and some of these are ideal in nature.
The characteristic love of the German for his chosen vocation,
devotion to duty, years of proscription and of persecution shared
with other comrades, the isolation from the bourgeois world of
the workers and their representatives, the invincible conviction
that only a party of a compact and solid structure will be able
to translate into action the lofty aims of socialism, and the conse-
quent aversion for any socialist struggle conducted by free-lances
outside the ranks of the organized party — such are some of the
numerous reasons which have combined to produce in the minds
of the German socialists a love for their organization enabling it
to resist the most violent storms. This attachment to the party.

^Although, so far as is known, Be"bel continued to the end of his life
to maintain the justice of the accusation he brought in 1872 (cf. August
Bebel, Aus meinem Leben, Dietz Naehf., Stuttgart, 1911, Part II, p. 130),
the official historian of the party, Franz Mehring (Gescliichte, der deutschen
SozialdemoTcratie, ed. cit, vol. iv, pp. 66 et seq.), takes the opposite view.
Commenting on Schweitzer 's declaration after his exclusion from the Verein,
Mehring remarks: "We cannot read without emotion the wise and dig-
nified leave-taking of the man who in difficult times had so firmly steered
the ship of the social democracy, who had rendered so m.any^ invaluable
services to the class-conscious proletariat, and who, enmeshed in the con-
sequences of his own best actions, committed more than one unjust action,
but suffered far greater injustice in return."

114 POLITICAL PARTIES

often manifested by fine and moving actions, certainly represents
one of the most solid elements in the foundation upon which has
been erected the edifice of German socialism. It enables us to
understand the conduct of the socialist leaders during and after
numerous crises which, in the view of the profane, would neces-
sarily terminate in the open abandonment of the party by a
number of its leaders. It is their love for the party, with which
the great majority of the comrades feel themselves to be identi-
fied, which has led such men as Eduard Bernstein and Kurt
Eisner to retain their membership after violent conflicts which
had almost led to their expulsion. It is proper to add that in
the course of this struggle these men have always preserved the
personal dignity without which a self-respecting man cannot
possibly remain among his companions-at-arms.

These ideal motives are reinforced by motives, no less impor-
tant, of a material order. The practice of paying for the serv-
ices rendered to the party by its employees creates a bond which
many of the comrades hesitate to break, and this for a thousand
reasons. The pecuniary remuneration for services to the party
which is given by the German social democracy immunizes the
party employees against the grosser forms of temptation. Where-
as in France, England, Holland, Italy, and elsewhere, socialist
propaganda, spoken and written, is effected chiefly by volunteers,
in the German socialist party gratuitous propaganda is practi-
cally unknown. Elsewhere than in Germany, socialist activity
is based upon individual enthusiasm, individual initiative, and
individual devotion; but in Germany it reposes upon loyalty,
discipline, and the sentiment of duty, encouraged by pecuniary
remuneration. In the history of the non-German socialist parties,
for example, we find important periodicals, such as the "Avan-
guardia Socialista" of Milan and the ''Nieuwe Tijd" of Amster-
dam, which have been founded by individual initiative, and
which are maintained by the political idealism of a few individ-
uals. These continue to carry on their work although the ex-
penses of the venture often exceed the income, and although
those who write for the papers in question are unpaid or almost
wholly unpaid. In Germany, on the other hand, the " Vorwarts"
of Berlin, the "Leipziger Volkszeitung" and the "Neue Zeit"
were founded and sustained by the party as a whole, and have a
paid editorial staff and paid contributors. It would nevertheless
be quite wrong to suppose that socialist propagandists and so-
cialist officials are paid on a scale which enables them with the

FIDELITY OF LEADERS 115

hard-earned pence of the workers to lead that luxurious exist-
ence which, with an ignorance bordering on impudence, is often
ascribed to them by the "respectable" press and the loungers of
the clubs. The life of a socialist journalist is far from resem-
bling that of a spendthrift or a libertine ; his day's work is by no
means an easy one, his labours demand an abundance of self-
denial and sacrifice and are nervously exhausting; whilst the
remuneration he receives is a modest one when compared with
the gravity and the difficulty of his task.^ No one will deny
this who has even an elementary acquaintance with the condi-
tions of work and pay in the socialist press and with the life led
by the employees of the party. Men of the ability and education
of Karl Kautsky, Max Quarck, Adolf Miiller, and a hundred
others, would have been able, had they chosen to devote them-
selves to some other service than that of the workers, to obtain
a material reward much greater than that which they secure in
their present positions.

This reference to the practice of the German socialist party of
remunerating all services rendered was necessary to enable the
reader to understand rightly certain peculiarities of German so-
cialist life. But it must not be supposed that there is no unpaid
socialist work in Germany. In country districts where the organ-
ization is still poor, and in the case of small weekly papers whose
financial resources are inconsiderable, much gratuitous work is
done by the socialists. In not a few places, moreover, the local
comrades do not receive pay for any of the speeches they make.
A witness to the idealism which, despite all difficulties, continues
to flourish in the working class is the way in which during elec-
tions and at other times many working-class socialists sacrifice
their Sunday rest in order to do propagandist work in the coun-
try, vigorously distributing leaflets, electoral addresses, socialist
calendars, etc. This gratuitous work is often carried out, not
only under conditions involving the patient endurance of expo-
sure and privation, but also in face of all kinds of abuse and of
the danger of arrest on the most trivial pretexts, and of attacks
made by excited antisemitic or clerical peasants.

In general, however, the German practice is to pay for all
services to the party, from the most trifling notice contributed to
a newspaper to the lengthiest public discourse. Whilst this de-
prives the party to a large extent of the spirit of heroism and

*Cf. pp. 57 et seq.

116 POLITICAL PARTIES

enthusiasm, and of work done by voluntary and spontaneous
collaboration, it gives to the organization a remarkable cohesion,
and an authority over the personnel which, though doubtless
detracting from its elasticity and its spirit of initiative, and, in
essence, tending to impair the very socialist mentality, constitutes
none the less one of the most important and indispensable bases
of the party life.

Able critics of socialist affairs, such as Ernst Giinther, have
endeavoured to explain the fact that persons of recognized abil-
ity and worth have preferred as a rule to subject themselves to
the party-will rather than to break completely with the organiza-
tion, by the suggestion that had they decided otherwise they
would have imperilled their political existence, and would have
renounced ''the possibility of continuing to represent efficiently
the interests of the workers. " " It is unquestionable that the
socialist platform is now the best one from which to advocate
the interests of the workers, and is historically the most appro-
priate, so that the renunciation of this platform almost always
involves the loss of the opportunity for defending working-class
interests. But it is no less indisputable that "to the average man
the close association of his own economic existence with his de-
pendence upon the socialist party seems a sufficient excuse ' ' for
the sacrifice of his own convictions in order to remain in a party
with which he is in truth no longer in full sympathy.^"

It has been written :

Staatserhaltend sind nur jene.
Die vom Staate viel erhalten."

For all their exaggeration, there is a nucleus of truth in these
words, and the criticism applies with equal justice to the party as
to the state. The practice of paying for all services rendered,
tends in no small degree to reinforce the party bureaucracy, and
favours centralized power. Financial dependence upon the

^ Ernst Giinther, Die Bevisionisticlie Bewegung in der deutschen Sozial-
demo'kratie, Jahrbuch fiir Gesetzgebung (SchmoUer, anno xxx (1906), fasc.
1, p. 253).

" Giinther, op. cit.
^ "There is a word-play here which renders a literal translation impossi-
ble. The general significance is that those only can be counted upon to
support the state who receive much at the hands of the state. — Much in
the same way as in England the reactionaries are accustomed to say
(though here without any intention to gibe) that those only who have a
"stake in the country" can be trusted to care for its interests!

ECOXOMIC PHASES 117

party, that is to say upon the leaders who represent the major-
ity, enshaekles the organization as with iron chains. The most
tenaciously conservative members of the organization are, in
fact, those who are most definitely dependent upon it. When
this dependence attains to a certain degi^ee of intensity, it exer-
cises a decisive influence upon the mentality. It has been noted
that in those countries in which members of parliament are not
salaried, but where the party organizations themselves provide
for the support of their parliamentary representatives, the dep-
uties have a very strong sense of dependence upon the members
of their organizations. Where, on the contrary, members of par-
liament are remunerated by the state, they feel themselves be-
fore all to be parliamentarians, even though, they may owe their
election exclusively to the socialist party.

It is well known that the numerical strength of the trade
unions depends to a very considerable extent upon the economic
advantages which the unions offer to their members. The suc-
cess of the trade-union movement from this point of view has
suggested to the German socialists that the socialist party should
extend to the rank and file of the membership some of the ad-
vantages which have hitherto been the exclusive privilege of the
party bureaucracy. Otto Gerisch, treasurer of the party and
member of the executive committee, referred to this possibility in
a speech on the problem of organization, made at the Bremen
Congress of 1904.^- After quoting facts proving the superiority
of the trade-union organization over that of the party, he stated
that in his view the real reason of this superiority was to be
found in the "accumulation of benefits" which the unions pro-
vided for their members. He added that the workers did not
prove faithful to their unions until these organizations under-
took the practice of mutual aid on the large scale, but that there-
after the membership increased enormously and became far more
stable. Continuing this train of thought, he said : "It is char-
acteristic that the Konigsberg comrades, who, in view of the ad-
vanced position they occupy in the Gennan socialist movement,
must certainly be held to possess extensive experience in matters
of organization and propaganda, pro%dde subsidies to members of
the party to meet funeral expenses.^^ This practice has been

^ProtoTcoll ilber die VerMndlungen des Parteitages der sosialdemokra-
tischen Partei Beutsclilands, abgelialten zu Bremen, Sept. 10-24, 1904, Ver-
lag "Vorwarts," BerHn, p. 272.

"A similar institution is found also in Giessen. Here every member of

118 POLITICAL PARTIES

introduced for a very good reason. We are at a disadvantage in
the socialist party as compared with the trade unions, in that we
cannot offer any direct advantages to our members. But this
will not always be the case." It seems doubtful if these words
are to be interpreted as a direct announcement of the intention
to introduce a system of mutual life-insurance, or whether Ger-
isch merely intended a warm recommendation of such a measure.
Oda Olberg, who was present at the congress on behalf of the
Italian socialist paper *'Avanti," interpreted the words in the
former sense, and described the speech as a " menace of degener-
ation. " ^* It is certain that in the German socialist party ten-
dencies exist towards laying greater stress upon such material
advantages, tendencies which might lead to the transformation
of the party organization into a socialistically tinged proletarian
assurance society. It is evident that an evolution in this direc-
tion would attract to the party hundreds of thousands of new
members, so that there would be a considerable accession of
strength. At the same time the apparatus of the socialist bu-
reaucracy would be greatly developed. The effects which such
an evolution would have upon the real strength of the party
vis-a-vis the state, upon its moral impetus, its internal unity, and
its tactical cohesion, are questions which cannot be discussed
here. For our purpose it has been enough to draw attention to
the influence which the practice of paying for services rendered
has upon the maintenance and the reinforcement of the organi-
zation.

In aristocratic regimes, so long, at least, as the aristocracy
retains its essentially plutocratic character, the elected officials
are usually unpaid. Their functions are purely honorary, even
when they require the whole time of those who undertake them.
They are members of the dominant class, are assumed to be rich,
to make it a point of honour to spend money for the public good,

the local braneli of the socialist party pays a monthly subscription of 25
pfennigs. Five pfennigs out of this sum are paid in to a special funeral ac-
count, and from this account is made a disbursement of 20 marks for the
funeral expenses of every member, or of his wife.

"Cf. leading article, II Congresso di Brema, "Avanti," anno viii. No.
2,608. Oda Olberg writes : ' ' Frankly, we cannot conceive a socialist party
which attracts and retains its members by offering them economic ad-
vantages. We consider that it would be far better to have a handful of
devoted comrades who have joined our ranks, not for lucre, but impelled
by the socialist faith, ready for every sacrifice, willing to give themselves,
rather than a whole army of members who have entered the party regarding

ECONOMIC PHASES 119

and to occupy, even at considerable pecuniary sacrifice, eminent
positions in the service of the state. A similar practice prevails
even in modern democracies. The Lord Mayor of London and
his colleagues in the other great cities of England are unpaid.
The same is true of the Italian Syndics. Inasmuch as the enter-
tainment allowances, etc., are usually altogether inadequate, the
holders of such offices must be men of considerable private means
to enable them to support the necessary charges, and they must
therefore be either wealthy parvenus or men born to wealth.
Similar considerations apply to Italian parliamentary represen-
tation. In Italy the government opposes the idea of paying sal-
aries to members of parliament, on the ground that it would be
improper for the elected of the nation to receive base money for
their activities.^^ The consequence is that in Italy, since the
Italian socialist party is a poor one, the manual workers are
a priori excluded from parliament. Among the thirty-six social-
ist deputies in the Italian chamber during 1909, two only had
been manual workers (trade-union leaders). In such conditions
it is likely that the party representation in the legislature will be
restricted to persons with private means, to those, that is to say,
who have time and money which they are able to devote to an
unremunerative occupation, and one which demands frequent
changes of residence. In France, moreover, where the salaries
of the deputies are on a liberal scale, it has been noted that the
poorest constituencies are represented in parliament by the rich-
est members.^®

Even in certain democratic parties the assumption of official

it as a mutual aid society." This view is estimable from the moral and
socialist outlook, but its utterance shows that Oda Olberg has an inadequate
understanding of the most conspicuous quality of the masses; unless it be
that she has abandoned her Marxism, that after the Blanquist manner she
is willing to renounce the democratic criterion of majority rule, and that
she looks to find salvation solely from the action of a small but intelligent
minority.

" Giolitti, replying in the year 1909 to a proposal that the Italian depu-
ties should be salaried, expressed again and again his clear conviction that
the payment of members would tend to weaken the repute of parliament
throughout the country. In his view, the representative function is a free
gift from the people (ef. Atti del Parlmnento Italiano, Camera dei Depu-
tati, sessione 1909, Tip. della Cam. dei Dep., Eome, 1909, vol, i, pp. 518 and
913). — In the year 1885 Bismarck, apropos of a paragraph in the Prussian
civil code, went so far as to describe the salary paid to the members of the
Eeichstag as " a dishonourable gain. ' '

^"Eugene Fourniere, op. cit., p. 109.

120 POLITICAL PARTIES

positions in the party may be regarded as an honorary office,
especially where the organization is not well supplied with means.
Thus there not infrequently arises within the party a peculiar
form of financial authority, since the comrades who are better
endowed with means, gain and retain influence through the pe-
cuniary services which they render. A plutocratic supremacy of
this nature exists in the press of those parties which, lacking
means for the independent maintenance of their own organs, are
forced to depend upon the pecuniary assistance given by well-to-
do comrades. The result, of course, is that these latter, as prin-
cipal shareholders in the newspaper, possess a natural right of
controlling its policy. A typical example of this is found in
France, where for a time "I'Humanite" was supported by a syn-
dicate of wealthy Jews. Again, in choosing delegates to the
party congresses, the preference is often given to those who are
able and willing to pay their own travelling expenses. In this
way it results that the congresses, which constitute the supreme
authority of the party, often come to be chiefly composed,, like
the parliamentary group in certain countries, of persons who are
comparatively well-to-do. This is what happens in Italy, France,
Holland, etc.^'^ As far as Germany is concerned, this is less likely
to occur, partly because very few members of the socialist party
are well off, and partly because of the flourishing condition of
the party finances. In Germany, therefore, the financial superi-
ority of the rich comrade over the poor one is often replaced by
the superiority of the rich branch. It is naturally very difficult
for the organizations that are short of money to send delegates to
the party congress, especially if this is held in a distant city.
Consequently these poor branches, when they are unable to ap-
point as delegate some one who has the time, the means, and the
will to undertake the journey at his own expense, are compelled
to abandon the idea of being represented at the congress. It
should be added that public opinion within the party has often
shown itself strongly adverse to the practice, stigmatizing the
delegates who are appointed on these terms as ''mandataries by
accommodation," and regarding the conferring and the accept-
ance of such a mandate as a treason to the party and as a form
of corruption. At the Bremen congress of 1904, in the case of
Fehndrich, it was loudly denounced as a veritable crime.^^ Such

"As regards France, cf. A. Jobert, Imfressions de Congres, "La Guerre
Soeiale," anno ii, No. 45.
^^ Protokoll, pp. 116 at seq., 265 e.t seq. Cf. also the discussion upon the

ECONOMIC PHASES 121

accusations are often unjust, for more spirit of sacrifice and
love of duty are commonly needed to induce a comrade to at-
tend a congress at his own cost than would be the case if he had
a week's holiday at the expense of his local branch.

Nevertheless it remains true that as regards representation at
party congresses, the smaller sections are in a position of serious
inferiority. Numerous proposals have been made for the remedy
of this state of affairs. For instance, in order to realize the
democratic postulate of the equal representation of all districts,
in the years 1903 and 1904. the section of Marburg proposed that
all the costs of delegation should be defrayed by the central
treasury. This proposal was not accepted, and consequently an-
other attempt was made to find a remedy, and this has taken the
form of uniting numerous local branches into provincial feder-
ations. Thus the rules of the provincial federation of Hesse-
Nassau contain a clause to the following effect: "Those local
branches of the federation which are unable to pay the costs of
delegation to the congress will draw lots every year to select
one among their number, and the branch thus chosen will have
the right to send a delegate to the congress at the expense of the
federation. ' ' It may be noted in passing that five of the branches
out of the ten of which the federation consists have to avail
themselves of this privilege.

A party which has a well-filled treasury is in a position, not
only to dispense with the material aid of its comparatively af-
fluent members, and thus to prevent the acquirement by these
of a preponderant influence in the party, but also to provide
itself with a body of officials who are loyal and devoted because
they are entirely dependent on the party for their means of sub-
sistence. Before the year 1906, when the payment of members
was conceded by the German state, the German socialist party
had provided the salaries of its deputies. In this way the party
leaders, poor men for the most part, were enabled to enter
parliament without being in a position to emancipate themselves
from the party, or to detach themselves from the majority of
the parliamentary group of socialists — as has happened in France
with the formation of the group of "independent socialists."
The French socialist party has been forced to recognize the
danger involved in the existence of leaders who are not economi-

Bimilar case of Lily Braun at the Munich congress of 1902 {ProtoJcoll, p.
250).

122 POLITICAL PARTIES

cally dependent on the party. In those countries in whicli the
representatives of the people are not paid by the government nor
salaried by the party, the danger of plutocracy arises from the
fact that the members of parliament must necessarily be men of
means ; but in France such a danger arises in the opposite way,
for here not only are the deputies paid, but they are paid at the
high rate of £600 a year. Consequently it has occurred to the
French socialists to adopt a measure which shall at once reduce
the financial supremacy of its representatives at the Palais
Bourbon and provide a steady accession to the party funds, and
they have decreed that every deputy elected under the segis of
the party must pay over one-fifth of his salary, £120 per annum,
to the party treasury. Many of the French socialist deputies,
in order to elude this obligation, have simply resigned their mem-
bership of the party. Among the causes which in the year 1905
led to the formation of the new parliamentary socialist group,
the so-called independent socialists, the chief was certainly the
desire to escape this heavy tax, and to preserve intact for them-
selves the fine round sum paid as salary by the state. Even in
the case of the deputies who, in order to preserve their seats,
have found it expedient to accept as a matter of principle their
liability to the party treasury, the majority have shown little
alacrity in the discharge of this liability. Year after year, in
fact, at the party congresses, there have been interminable dis-
cussions as to the means to be adopted to compel the recalci-
trant socialist deputies to discharge their financial obligations.
And yet (and here is one of the ironies of history) it has not
taken long to discover that to despoil the deputies of a portion
of their salary does not after all constitute the most efficacious
means of preventing the formation within the party of an oli-
garchy of plutocrats. From the report made to the congress of
Nimes (1910) by the executive committee it appears that of the
128,000 francs which constitute the party revenue, more than
half, 67,250 francs to be precise, was made up by the contribu-
tions of the socialist members of parliament.^^ Such a state of
affairs is eminently calculated to favour the predominance of the
deputies, who become the financial props of the party administra-
tion, and thus are persons of importance whom the rank and file
must treat with all possible respect.

Speaking generally, when the manual workers become employ-

" Letter contributed by Grumbach to the " Volksstimme " of Frankfort,
March 1, 1910.

ECONOMIC PHASES 123

ers it is not found that they are easy masters. They are prone
to mistrust, and are extremely exacting.^o Were it not that
these employees have as a rule abundant means of escaping from
the influence of their many-headed masters, they would be worse
treated — so runs the complaint — than by any private employer.
In relation to the salaried officials, every member of the organi-
zation considers himself a capitalist and behaves accordingly.
Moreover, the manual workers often lack any criterion for the
appreciation of intellectual labour.

In Rome, many societies for co-operative production make it a
principle to pay their commercial and technical managers on
the same scale as their manual workers.^^ In Germany, too, for
a long time the same tendency prevailed. At the assembly of
the Christian miners held at Gelsenkirchen in 1898, the demand
found expression that Brust, one of the leaders, should continue
manual work as a miner, since otherwise he would forfeit the
esteem of his comrades.^^ At the socialist congress held at Berlin
in 1892 a motion was discussed for many hours in accordance
with which no employee of the party was to be paid a salary ex-
ceeding £125 per annum ;-^ whilst at the congress of Frankfort
in 1894 the proposal to increase the salary of the two party sec-
retaries by £25 had to be withdrawn, since the voting was inde-
cisive, although the ballot was taken several times.^* For a long
time in the German socialist party there continued to prevail the
erroneous view that the salaries paid to the party employees, and
even the disbursements made to propagandists on account of ex-
penses and time lost, were a sort of gratuity, a "pourboire."^^

^"Cf. Heinrieh Herkner, Die Arbeit erf rage, ed. cit., p. 116; Richard Cal-
wer, Prinzipien und Meinungsfreiheit, "Soz. Monatsh.," x (xii), fasc. 1. — ■
In an inquiry instituted in Italy by the General Federation of Labour con-
cerning the wages paid to the employees of trade unions, one of the wit-
nesses, when asked, "How are the employees paid in your union?" replied
bitterly, "With frequent votes of censure! " (Fausto Pagliari, Le Organis-
zazioni e i loro Impiegati, ed. cit. p. 11). — In England it has been said:
"Socialist advocates in England are disgTacefully sweated. Heaven help
those who throw their bread upon socialist waters; from no mundane source
will help come" (S. G. Hobson, Boodle and Cant, "International Socialist
Eeview," vol. ii, No. 8, p. 587).

^ Lamberto Paoletti, Un Cimitero di Cooperative, "Giomale degli Eco-
nomisti," September 1905, p. 266.

^ Heinrieh Herkner, op. cit., p. 114.

'^ProtokoU, pp. 116-131.

''* ProtoJcoll, pp. 69 et seq.

^ Cf . speech by Eichard Fischer at the congress of Berlin in 1892, Pro-
tokoll, p. 127.

124 POLITICAL PARTIES

In tbe case of the socialist newspapers, the editor was often
worse paid than the business manager and even than the com-
positors.^'' Matters have changed since then, but there always
exists a tendency on the part of the manual workers which in-
duces them to endeavour to keep down the salaries of the party
officials to the level of what is paid to a factory hand. A few
years ago a trade union passed a motion to the effect that the em-
ployees of the union should be paid by the hour, and on the same
scale as that which prevailed in the branch of industry to which
they belonged as trade unionists. Even now, in fixing the sal-
aries of their own employees, many of the comrades adopt as a
principle that the remuneration ought to be less than that which
is paid for the same work by capitalist employers.^^ Speaking
generally, however, it may be said that the German working class
is now accustomed to pay its employees liberally. This improve-
ment is explicable, in part, from the improved financial position
of the trade unions and of the socialist party. But there is an-
other reason. The employees have succeeded in withdrawing the
question of their salaries from the publicity of the congresses
and of reserving the discussion of this question for private com-
mittees.

In France, on the other hand, the tendency among the workers
to stint their employees has gained ground, especially of late,
since the deputies to the Chamber have been allotted salaries of
£600 a year. The indignation against the "Quinze Mille"
(15,000 francs) has been so great that in many eases the man-
ual workers have been unwilling to pay their employees in the
trade unions more than the tenth part of this sum, the modest
annual salary of £60.^^ During 1900-1901, the three employees
of the Confederation Generale du Travail (the secretary, the
treasurer, and the "organizer") received in all only 3,173 francs
(i.e., a little over £40 a year each).^'' The two chief employees
of the Printers' Federation receive an annual salary of £144

^Cf. Eiehard Calwer, Bos Kommunistische Manifest und die heutige So-
sialdemokratie, Giinther, Brunswick, 1894, p. 38; also E. Fischer, Frotolioll,
p. 129.

^^ Bernstein, Arbeiterbewegung, ed. cit,, pp. 142 et seq.

"^Enquete sur la crise sindicaliste ; reponse de E. ClemcsynsTci, "Mouve-
ment socialiste, " vol. xi, Nos. 215-216, p. 302.

^Paul Louis, Histoire du mouvement syndical en France (1789-1906),
!A.lean, Paris, 1907, p. 244. From March 1901 the salary of the "perma-
nent, ' ' Georges Yvetot, was raised to 8 francs a day, £116 a year (Fernand
Pelloutier, op. cit., p. 152).

ECONOMIC PHASES 125

each, whilst the treasurer receives £48 a year. The Metalworkers
Federation regards itself as extraordinarily liberal in engaging
three employees at a salary of £112 per annum, and (in 1905)
seven district secretaries at salaries of £95 each.^*'

In Italy there has not yet come into existence a numerous gen-
eral staff of employees salaried by the socialist party and the
trade-union organizations. This is chiefly explicable by lack of
funds. For many years it has been necessary to improvise sec-
retaries, administrators, and treasurers of trade unions and local
branches, to find them from day to day by appealing to the good-
will and devotion of the comrades.^^ Before 1905, the Printers'
Federation was the only one which had special employees for
bookkeeping and for the administration of the funds.^^ Even
to-day the life of the labour organizations is extremely rudimen-
tary and is exposed to great vicissitudes. Of late years, indeed,
the number of permanent employees of the federations and the
Bourses du Travail has undergone a continuous increase, but
these employees are still very badly paid. We are told by Rigola
that the salary has been raised from 100 lire to 200 lire a month,
and that "no self-respecting organization will now offer less."
But this increase does not suffice to provide a remedy, for 200
lire will not induce a skilled workman to abandon his trade to
become a trade-union leader.^^ Notwithstanding this, if we are
to believe the trade unionists, even in Italy some of the trade-
union leaders are already manifesting that tendency to grow fat
and idle for w^hich the leaders of the rich English labour organ-
izations have sometimes been reproached.

The meagreness of the salaries paid to their employees by the
socialist party and the trade unions is not due solely to that em-
ployers' arrogance and arbitrariness from which the working
class is by no means exempt when it becomes an employer. Where
the younger organizations are concerned, the trouble may arise
simply from lack of means. Moreover, in paying at a low rate
there is a practical end in view, the desire being that the em-
ployees should serve for love of the cause, and not T^dth an eye

r ■

3° Paul Louis, op. cit., pp. 198-9,

^Alessandro Schiavi, 11 Nerbo delle Associasioni operaie, "Critiea So-
ciale, " anno xv, No. 10.

^^'Eenato Brocehi, L'Organissasione di Besistema in Italia, Libr. Editr.
Marehigiana, Macerata, 1907, p. 137.

'"Einaldo Kigola, I Funsionari dell' Organizsazione, <'Avanti," anno
xiv. No. 341.

126 POLITICAL PARTIES

to the material advantages attaching to their office. It was hoped
that in this way the idealism of the leaders would be artificially
fostered, and that it would be possible to prevent them from
raising themselves above the social level of their proletarian com-
rades. During the early and revolutionary period of the labour
movement, whether economic or political, such attempts were
made in every country of the world. The labour organizations
have not always been satisfied with paying their employees on a
stingy scale, but members of the party or the union have even
been forbidden to accept the money which the state paid to those
who became members of parliament. Among the reasons which
in the year 1885 induced the socialists of Berlin to abstain from
participation in the elections to the Prussian Landtag, the chief
was the consideration that the fifteen marks a day which the
members of this body receive would tend to lift the socialist
members out of their class.^*

In practice, however, the grudging payment of the leaders
which at least in the early days of the trade-union movement was
a deliberate policy, has proved to be a very untrustworthy safe-
guard against possible breaches of duty.

For the great majority of men, idealism alone is an inade-
quate incentive for the fulfilment of duty. Enthusiasm is not
an article which can be kept long in store. Men who will stake
their bodies and their lives for a moment, or even for some
months in succession, on behalf of a great idea often prove in-
capable of permanent work in the service of the same idea even
when the sacrifices demanded are comparatively trifling. The
joy of self-sacrifice is comparable to a fine gold coin which can
be spent grandly all at once, whereas if we change it into small
coin it dribbles imperceptibly away. Consequently, even in the
labour movement, it is necessary that the leaders should receive
a prosaic reward in addition to the devotion of their comrades
and the satisfaction of a good conscience. Quite early in the his-

^ The following passage may be quoted from tlie resolution voted in this
connection: "Finally, seeing that every member of the Prussian House
of Eepresentatives is paid an allowance of 15 marks a day, we cannot escape
recognizing that by participating in the elections we may be opening the
way for a renunciation of principles, and may be creating a forcing-house
for professonal parliamentarians (our principles are sacred to all of us
and our representatives are men of honour, but man is a product of cir-
cumstances, and it is better to intervene now than when it is too late ! ) "
(Eduard Bernstein, Die Geschichte der Berliner Arieiteriewegung, Buch-
handl. "Vorwarts," Berlin, 1907, vol. ii, p. 160).

PAYMENT OF LEADERS 127

toiy of the organizations formed by the Italian agricultural
workers we find in a manual written for the guidance of these
that if the capoJega or chief of the union is to do his duty it
would be well to pay him for his work.^^

For two additional reasons it is necessary that the employees
should be adequately paid. The first of these is a moral one,
belonging to the department of socialist ethics. The labourer is
worthy of his hire. In Marxist terminology, the worker who does
not receive pay correspondent to the social value of his work is
being exploited. The other reason belongs to the sphere of prac-
tical politics. To pay the leaders poorly as a matter of principle
is dangerous precisely because it stakes everything upon the
single card of idealism, Eduard Bernstein is right in contend-
ing that underpayment leads to corruption and demoralization.^^
The leader who is poorly paid is more likely to succumb to temp-
tation, more likely to betray the party for gain, than one who,
being well paid, finds in his occupation a safe and sufficient in-
come. Moreover, the payment of the leaders at a low rate ren-
ders difficult the application of another preventive means against
the establishment of an oligarchy, for it hinders frequent changes
in the personnel of the leading employees, and thus indirectly
favours the formation of an oligarchy. In France, where it is
still the rule to pay the trade-union leaders very small salaries,
there is lacking a new generation of leaders ready to take the
place of the old, and for this reason at the trade-union congresses
the same members continually appear as delegates.^''

If, however, the non-payment of the party leaders or their
remuneration on a very moderate scale does not afford any safe-
guard for the observance of democratic principles on the part of
the officials, we have on the other hand to remember that an in-
crease in the financial strength of the party, which first renders
liberal payment of the officials possible, contributes greatly to
nourish the dictatorial appetites of the members of the party
bureaucracy, who control the economic forces of the party in
virtue of their position as administrators. In the history of
Christianity we learn that as the wealth of the Church increased,
there increased also the independence of the clergy, of the ec-
clesiastical employees, vis-a-vis the community. As representa-

^Egidio Bernaroli, op. cit., p. 27.

*« Eduard Bernstein, Die DcnwJcratie in der SozialdenwlcraUe, "Sozial.
Monatsh.," September 3, 1908, p. 1108.
^^ E. Clemczynski, op. cit., p. 301.

128 POLITICAL PARTIES

tives of the comnninity they were in charge of the goods. Con-
sequently all those who had need of these goods, or wished in
any way to speculate upon them, were dependent upon the
clergy. This applied not only to mendicants and to all kinds
of receivers of alms, but also to those whose aim it was to swell
the ranks of the clergy, or to succeed to the positions of these,
all aspirants to sacerdotal honours. For the administration of
the funds and for the conduct of affairs^, Christianity needed a
graded corps of employees. This was the origin of the hierarchy
which changed the inner meaning of Christianity and perverted
its aims. A similar danger is encountered by all democratic
parties which possess an elaborate financial administration.^^
This danger is especially marked in the case of the German so-
cialist party, whose central organization in the year 1908 em-
ployed merely in its printing office 298 persons,^'* and all of these,
having no share whatever in the net profits, nor any rights in the
management of the social property, depend upon the party just
ias they might depend upon any ordinary private employer. In
the hands of the party bureaucracy are the periodical press, the
publication and sale of the party literature, and the enrolment
of orators in the list of paid propagandists. All these sources of
income can at any time be closed to undesirable competitors or to
dissatisfied members of the rank and file, and this power is uti-
lized in actual practice.^*^ The concentration of power in those

^This danger has been recognized by Ettore Cieeotti, notwithstanding
the optimist tendency of his views on the relationship of the leaders to the
masses. Cf. Psicologia del Movimento socialista, ed. eit., p. 127.
I ^' Eduard Bernstein, Die Natur und die Wirliungen der capitalistiscJie
'' Wirtscliaftsordnung, Buchhandlung ' ' Vorwarts, ' ' Berlin, 1909, p. 12.

*" During the struggle between the party leaders and the so-called ' ' Jung-
en," the executive committee forbade the sale in the bookshops of the
party of works by Dr. Bruno Wille (youthful writings and poems), since
Wille himself belonged to the opposing faction, although the work in ques-
tion was not written to voice the views of the opposition. In defence of the
leaders' action Eichard Fischer, a member of the executive, wrote to Wille
under date November 6, 1891: "Our party is no mere vague ideal com-
munity, but a practical body, with such and such organs. However little
we are inclined to exclude from intellectual participation any one from
the realm of Cuckoo Cloudland, the party has to take every care that within
the framework of the organization its adherents yield to the will of the
community in matters of tactics and discipline. One who will not submit
himself to these principles of subordination, and who combines with others
who are declared to be unworthy to belong to this organization, in order
to work against the party, renounces ipso facto all claim to make use of the
organs and of the advantages which the organisation has created and

FINANCIAL POWER OF LEADERS 129

parties which preach the Marxist doctrine is more conspicuous
than the concentration of capital predicted by Marx in economic
life. For some years past the leaders of the German socialist
party have employed numerous methods of oppression, such as
the threat to give no aid either in men or money on behalf of
the electoral propaganda of a candidate from whose views they
dissent, although the local comrades give this candidate their
full confidence. It is hardly necessary to say that such a prac-
tice as this accords ill with the principles of liberty and frater-
nity.*^ In this way have come into existence strict relationships
of dependence, of hierarchical superiority and inferiority, engen-
dered by the invisible force of the great god Money, and this
within the bosom of the working-class party which has taken as
its motto Blanqui 's phrase, ni Dieu ni Maitre.

Brief allusion may be made in conclusion to another kind of
economic pressure which labour organizations are able to exer-
cise. Publicans whose houses are frequented chiefly or exclu-
sively by members of the working class, or small shopkeepers
whose customers consist mainly of working women, are indirectly
if not directly dependent, in the economic sense, upon the party
and upon the trade union. They are dependent, that is to say,
upon the leading personalities in these organizations, who, by
declaring a boycott, can involve them in absolute ruin.

which it safeguards for its mevibers. One of these organs is our book-
selling business, and consequently it was a matter of course that we came
to the decision of which you complain" (Hans Miiller, Der Elassenlcariipf
in der deutschen demoTcratie, Verlagsmagazin J. SchabeHtz, Zurich, 1892,
p. 119). Cf. also a speech made by Von Elm at the Mannheim congress
of 1906 (Protol'oll, p. 300). — The pecuniary effect of such a boycott as that
of Wille's book is naturaUy greater in proportion as all the workers have
become accustomed to accept only such intellectual nutriment as has
been oflfieially prepared in the party kitchens and is guaranteed as thor-
oughly wholesome. Above all, then, this applies to .Germany.
^^ .Wolfgang Heine, op. cit., p. 283.

CHAPTER III

THE LEADERS AND THE PRESS

The press constitutes a potent instrument for the conquest, tlie
preservation, and the consolidation of power on the part of the
leaders. The press is the most suitable means of diffusing the
fame of the individual leaders among the masses, for populariz-
ing their names. The labour press, and this applies equally to
the trade-union journals and to those which devote themselves
predominantly to political ends, is full of panegyrics concern-
ing the personalities of the leaders, of references to their * ' disin-
terestedness and self-sacrificingness, " to their ''ardent idealism,
conjoined with a vigorous force of conviction and with invincible
tenacity," qualities which, we are told^ have alone made it pos-
sible for them to create the great working-class organizations.^
Such flattering phrases as are from time to time used of the so-
cialist leaders by the capitalist press (mostly dictated by mo-
tives of electoral opportunism) are complacently reproduced by
socialist journals, and whether taken at par value or not they
serve, by their diffusion among the socialist rank and file, to in-
crease the prestige of the leaders.^

*Cf. the article entitled Z>ie Gewerkschaften BeutscJilands in the "Schwa-
bisehe Tagwacht," anno xxvii, No. 191 (Au^st 17, 1907).

^ A typical example of this is furnished by an article Lob aus gegnerischen
Mwnde [Praise from the Enemy] which was circulated among the electors
of Giessen apropos of an election to the diet, and from which the following
passages may be quoted. "Now that the elections to the diet are ap-
proaching, we may remind our readers that the activity of our comrades
in the Diet of Hesse has been recognized and praised by the leading
organ of the national liberals. Six years ago, just before the then elec-
tions, an article was published in the 'Kolnische Zeitung,' dealing with'
the conditions in Hesse and the parties in the diet, judging these last from
a thoroughly objective standpoint. The writer, who was obviously well
acquainted with his subject, opened by a strongly adverse criticism of
the leaders of his own party, the national liberals, who were then pre-
dominant in the Hessian diet. Turning them to consider our comrades, he
continued: 'The Hessian social democrats in the diet are remarkable men.
Not only do they work very hard, indeed harder than all others, in the
fulfilment of their parliamentary duties, but they often play a leading

130

THE LEADERS AND THE PRESS 131

It is true that the press cannot exert the immediate influence '^
which the popular propagandist exercises over his audience in
public meetings, debates, and party congresses.^ In compensa-
tion for this defect, however, the circle of influence of the writ-
ten word is far more extensive. The press can be used with
effect to influence public opinion by cultivating a "sensation" —
a point in which modern party democracy exhibits a fundamental
trait which it shares with Bonapartism. This means is fre-
quently employed by the leaders in order to gain or to retain
the sympathy of the masses, and to enable them to keep the guid-
ance of the movement in their own hands. The democratic press

part. Many members of the constitutional parties would do well to
take example at the manner in which the socialist locksmith Ulrich of
Offenbach performed his duties as secretary of the finance committee, the
way in which he examined the demand for universities and schools, showing
himself as a rule to be the most zealous and the most friendly to the
government of all those who desire to favour a progressive culture. He
was supported in this activity by his colleague Dr. David, who, although
his views are somewhat more doctrinaire and Utopian, none the less greatly
excels most of the representatives in point of general culture. Such'
socialists as these are all the more dangerous because of their moderation,
and it is not surprising that they have to be reckoned with.' Again,
'Strongly in contrast with the socialists are the antisemites and the
peasant-leagues, for these have always displayed themselves as the bitter-
est enemies of the government; they are incapable of being influenced by
reason, utterly unteachable, rude blusterers, unpractical and barren poli-
ticians, insanely particularist, and often, positively ludicrous. ....'"
("Mitteldeutsehe Sonntagszeitung, " xii. No. 46). The article concludes
with a vigorous appeal to the electors to vote for the socialist candidates,
because of all the parties the socialist is the one most friendly to the
(Grand Ducal government!

^ The powerful stimulus which the personality of Singer exercised over
the masses was described by Kurt Eisner in the following terms: "With
a sort of jovial energy and with a never failing sureness of touch he
knew how to tame and to lead the rude multitude. . . . Specially remark-
able was Singer in the small official speeches, in the ' addresses to the throne '
with which he was accustomed to conclude the labours of the 'socialist |
parliamentary session.' Then it became apparent how importance is con-
ferred upon the individual by the greatness of the cause in which he
is as it were rooted. Naturally in such addresses he did not rise above
that level of daily commonplace which is appropriate to aU official utter-
ances, but he knew so well how to polish his phrases until they shone; his
voice, almost completely losing its Berlin twang, then rose to its full
strength ; pale words and anaemic emotion became transfused with red blood ;
and he always closed with some word of power, with one of those turns
of phrase intermediate between the trivial and the sublime, which are
characteristic of the gifted public speaker" (Kurt Eisner, Taggeist,
Kulturglossen, Dr. John Edelheim Verlag, Berlin, 1901, pp. 107-108).

132 POLITICAL PAUTIES

is also utilized by the leaders in order to make attacks (more or
less masked) upon their adversaries; or to launch grave accusa-
tions against persons of note in the world of politics or finance.
These attacks may or may not be established upon a sufficient
foundation of proof, but at any rate they serve to raise a dust-
storm.* Sometimes, again^ the leaders endeavour to ingratiate
themselves with the masses by employing in respect of their capi-
talist opponents, coarse and insulting language which recalls the
proverbial "Billingsgate." All means are good to the popular-
ity-hunter, and he varies them to suit his environment.

The manner in which the leaders make use of the press to se-
cure their domination naturally varies from one country to an-
other in accordance with variation in national customs. "Where
the party organization and the force at its disposal are still weak,
the influence of the leaders is direct and personal. The conse-
quence is that in France, in England, and in Italy, where the
popular character still presents a strongly individual stamp, the
democratic leader presents himself as personally responsible for
what he writes, and signs his articles in full. An article which
appears in ''Le Socialiste" in Paris will attract attention, not so
much on account of its own merits, but because at the foot it
displays in large type the signature of a Jules Guesde. The
leader imposes his influence upon the masses directly, manifest-
ing his opinion openly, often giving it the form of a decree, pub-
lished in the most conspicuous part of the paper. From the
£esthetic and ethical points of view, this is, moreover, the best
form of journalism, for the reader has a right to know the source
of the wares which are offered him, and this altogether apart
from the consideration that to all public activity there should be
applied the fundamental moral principle that each one is respon-
sible to all for his conduct. For the aspirants to leadership,
again, the practice of signing newspaper articles has the incon-
testable advantage that it makes their names known to the

*In the winter of 1904 "Vorwarts" came out with the sensational
news of alleged homosexual misconduct at Capri on the part of Frederick
Krupp, of Essen. Shortly afterwards the same journal published details
of a plan which the emperor was supposed to have drawn up with his
own hand for the construction in Berlin of a fortified castle for defence
against the workers. In the winter of 1905, "Avanti" published at-
tacks upon the personal and official honour of Admiral Bettolo, Minister of
Marine — attacks which some years later, when they had attained their
end, were withdrawn by the editor-in-chief, Enrico Ferri. Similar examples
could be quoted by hundreds from the socialist press.

THE LEADERS AND THE PRESS 133

masses, and this facilitates tlieir gradual rise in the scale of rep-
resentative honours until they attain to the highest.

In other countries, as for instance in Germany, the faith of
the masses in authority is so robust that it does not require to be
sustained by the prestige of a few conspicuous individualities.
Hence journalism is here almost always anonymous. The indi-
vidual contributor disappears behind the editorial staff. The
journal does not serve to diffuse the writers' names far and wide,
and regular readers are often totally ignorant of the individuali-
ties of the staff. This explains the comparative unimportance of
the personal role played by German publicists when compared
with those of most other countries ; it explains their small part
in public life, and the trifling social consideration they enjoy.
But this must not be taken to mean that the anonymous press
fails to serve the leaders as an instrument of domination. Since
the German journalist is identified with the whole editorial staff,
and even with the entire party, the result is that his voice ap-
peals to the public with the entire force of this collective author-
ity, flis personal ideas thus acquire a prominence and attain
an influence which would otherwise be lacking.^ What the indi-
vidual member of the staff loses through his anonymity, in respect
of direct influence upon the masses, is gained by the journalist
leaders as a group. The editorial ' ' we, ' ' uttered in the name of
a huge party, has a much greater effect than even the most dis-
tinguished name. The ''party," that is to say the totality of
the leaders, is thus endowed with a special sanctity, since the
crowd forgets that behind an article which thus presents itself
under a collective aspect there is concealed in the great majority
of cases but one single individual. In Germany it is not difficult
to observe that the anonymous polemical and other articles of
"Vorwarts," the central organ of the party, are regarded by
the rank and file, and especially in Prussia, as a sort of periodical
gospel, as a Bible in halfpenny numbers. It is more especially for
the publication of violent personal attacks that anonjmious jour-
nalism furnishes convenient and almost tempting opportunities,
guaranteeing moral and legal impunity. Behind the shelter thus

''In order to avoid this danger a portion of the German socialist press
seeks to render the personality of its writers distinguishable by having
the articles signed by one or more initials, whose significance is known at
any rate to an inner circle of initiates. Unfortunately this prophylactic
measure is not extended to those official journalistic utterances which are
apt to contain the most venomous attacks upon certain members of the party.

134 POLITICAL PARTIES

afforded by anonymity those of base and cowardly nature are apt
to lurk in order that they may launch thence in safety their
poisoned arrows against their personal or political adversaries.
The victim of aggression is thus for four separate reasons placed
in a position of inferiority. The rank and file consider the cen-
sure which has been expressed against him as having been ut-
tered in the name of a principle or a class^ as emanating from
a superior and impersonal region, and as consequently of an
extremely serious character and practically indelible. On the
other hand, the whole editorial staff feels itself responsible for
what has been published, for the anonymous article is regarded
as published with the unanimous consent of the collectivity ; the
result is that the whole staff makes common cause with the ag-
gressor, and this renders it almost impossible to secure any
reparation for the wrong which has been committed. Further,
the person attacked does not know who is the aggressor, whereas
if he knew the latter 's name he might be able to understand the
motives for the attack instead of being forced to fight a shadow.
Finally, if he is by chance able to unveil the personality of the
aggressor, journalistic etiquette forbids him to undertake his
defence on lines directed against the aggressor individually, and
he is thus deprived of one of the most efficient methods of de-
fence. It recently happened that a writer in the German social-
ist press, who had attacked another member of the party, when
this latter made a reply which unquestionably demanded a re-
joinder, refused to continue the discussion because the person
attacked had addressed his reply, not to the editorial staff gen-
erally, but "to one single member of that staff," who was in
fact the aggressor. The reason given for this refusal was that in
thus replying to an individual instead of to the staff the second
writer had "infringed the most elementary decencies of party
life."«

The obliteration of personality in German journalism has
favoured the institution, in connection with the socialist press of
that country, of what are known as "correspondence bureaux."
These organizations, which are managed by some of the writers
of the party, transmit every day to the socialist press informa-
tion relating to special branches, such as foreign politics, coopera-
tive questions, and legislative problems. The bureaux owe their
origin in great part to the spirit of intense economy which domi-

«" Frankfurter Volksstimme, " 1909, No. 175.

THE LEADERS AND THE PRESS 135

nates the party press. They confer upon this press a stamp of
great uniformity, since dozens of newspapers receive their in-
spiration from the same source^ Further, they insure the su-
premacy of a small closed group of official journalists over the
independent writers — a supremacy which is manifested chiefly
in the economic sphere, since those who write for the correspond-
ence bureaux seldom play any notable part in the political life
of the party.

In all cases the press remains in the hands of the leaders and
is never controlled by the rank and file. There is often inter-
calated between the leaders and the mass an intermediate stratum
of press commissaries who are delegated by the rank and file
to exercise a certain supervision over the editorial staff. In the
most favourable circumstances, however, these functionaries can-
not aspire to more than a very small share of power, and consti-
tute merely a sort of inopportune and untechnical supplementary
government. Speaking broadly it may be said that it is the
paid leaders who decide all the political questions which have to
do with the press.^

^Cf. Heinrich Strobel, Ein sosidlistisches Echo?, "Neue Zeit," anno
xxvii, vol. ii. No. 45.

« Cf . supra, pp. 24, 25, 26, 39-40.

CHAPTER IV

THE POSITION OF THE LEADERS IN RELATION TO
THE MASSES IN ACTUAL PRACTICE

In the political organizations of the international proletariat,
the highest order of the leaders consists chiefly of members of
parliament. In proof of this it suffices to mention the names of
a few men who were or are the most distinguished socialist
leaders of their day, and at the same time men of note as par-
liamentarians : Bebel, Jaures, Guesde, Adler, Vandervelde, Troel-
stra, Turati, Keir Hardie, Macdonald, Pablo Iglesias. Hyndman
is an exception only because he has never succeeded in winning
an election. The section of the English party to which he be-
longs is unrepresented in parliament.

The fact here noted indicates the essentially parliamentary
character of the modern socialist parties. The socialist members
of parliament are those who have especially distinguished them-
selves in the party by their competence and by their capacity.
But in addition to this superiority, recognized and consecrated
by the party itself, there are two reasons for the great authority
exercised by the socialist parliamentarian. In the first place,
in virtue of his position, he largely escapes the supervision of
the rank and file of the party, and even the control of its execu-
tive committee. He owes his comparative independence to the
fact that the parliamentary representative is elected for a con-
siderable term of years, and can be dispossessed by no one so long
as he retains the confidence of the electors. In the second place,
and even at the moment of his election, his dependence on the
party is but indirect, for his power is derived from the electoral
masses, that is to say, in ultimate analysis from an unorganized
body. It is true that in certain countries the independence of
the party organization thus enjoyed by the parliamentary depu-
ties is subject to limits more or less strict according to the degree
of organization and cohesion of the party. But even then the
respect and the power enjoyed by the parliamentarians remain
unquestioned, since it is they who within the party fill the prin-
cipal offices, and whose power predominates to a notable degree

136

POSITION OF THE LEADERS 137

in the party executive. This is true, above all, of Germany.^
Where the rules forbid the deputy to function also as a member
of the executive committee (in Italy, for example, only one dep-
uty, chosen by the parliamentary group, can sit on the party
executive), 2 much friction is apt to arise between the two groups
of leaders, impairing the authority of both. But, for the reasons
expounded above, the influence of the parliamentary group com-
monly predominates.

The influence of parliamentarism is particularly great in the
German social democracy. This is clearly shown by the attitude
towards the party commonly assumed by the socialists in parlia-
ment. There is no other socialist party in the world in which
the conduct of its representatives in parliament is subject to so
little criticism. The socialist members of the Reichstag fre-
quently make speeches in that body which might be expected to
give rise to the liveliest recriminations, and yet neither in the
party press nor at the congresses is to be heard a word of crit-
icism or of disapproval, ©uring the discussions in the Reichstag
concerning the miners' strike in the basin of the Ruhr (1905),
the deputy Hue spoke of the maximum programme of the party
as " Utopian/' and in the socialist press there was manifested
no single symptom of revolt. On the first occasion on which the
party departed from its principle of unconditional opposition to
all military expenditure, contenting itself with simple abstention
when the first credit of 1,500,000 marks was voted for the war
against the Hereros, this remarkable innovation, which in every
other socialist party would have unquestionably evoked a storm
from one section of the members, even if there might have been
manifested cheerful approval by another, aroused among the
German socialists no more than a few dispersed and timid pro-
tests. Subsequently, at the Bremen congress of 1904, when the
deputies had to give an account of their conduct, very few dele-
gates were found to express disapproval. It is, further, remark-
able to what a degree the power of the parliamentary group be-
comes consolidated as the party increases throughout the country.

^In France, until 1914, the right of the deputies to enter the executive
committee of the socialist party was restricted by the rules, but in the be-
ginning of that year the restrictions were relaxed, enabling the deputies
to exercise a predominant influence in the councils of the party.

* Two deputies may be members of the executive committee if one of these
two is chairman of the central organization, and thus ex officio member
of the executive.

138 POLITICAL PAUTIES

In earlier days, far less important questions aroused mueli more
acute struggles between the party and the parliamentary group.
,To-day, the socialist masses in Germany have accustomed them-
selves to the idea that the decisive struggle on behalf of the aims
they have at heart will be carried out in parliament, and for this
reason they scrupulously avoid doing anything which might make
difficulties for their parliamentary representatives. This con-
viction constantly determines the conduct of the masses in rela-
tion to their leaders. Hence in many questions the conduct of
the parliamentary group is really decisive, suprema lex. All vig-
orous criticism, though made in accordance with the basic prin-
ciples of socialism, is at once repudiated by the rank and file if it
tends to weaken the position of the parliamentary group. Those
who, notwithstanding this, venture to voice such criticism are
immediately put to silence and are severely stigmatized by the
leaders. Two examples may be given in illustration. The ' ' Leip-
ziger Volkszeitung, " in the year 1904, in a leading article en-
titled The Usury of Bread, vented its anger in somewhat violent
terms upon the political leaders of the capitalist parties. There-
upon in the Eeichstag certain orators of the right and of the
centre, when Prince Biilow had himself read this article to the
house, adducing it as an evil example of journalistic methods,
made a great display of indignation against the socialists. When
this happened, Bebel, who had hitherto been a declared friend of
the "Leipziger Volkszeitung," did not hesitate to repudiate the
article in open parliament, though his conduct was here in fla-
grant contradiction with the best established traditions of democ-
racy, and with the essential principle of party solidarity.* At
the congress of Bremen in 1904, Georg von VoUmar openly con-
demned the first attempts at anti-militarism made in Germany
by certain members of the party. He did this with the express

'It is true that the early history of the German socialist party con-
tains one or two precedents for Bebel 's action. In 1881, Hasenclever
and Bios made use of certain expressions in the Eeichstag which amounted
to a disavowal of the central party organ of that day, the "Sozialdemo- ,
krat. " Still better known is the dispute between the parliamentary group ■
and the "Sozialdemokrat" of Zurich apropos of the debate concerning the
Steamship Subsidy in 1885, in the course of which the group published a j
declaration to the effect that the party organ must in no case set itself j
in opposition to the group, while the group was responsible for the party
press: "It is not the journal which has to determine the conduct of the
parliamentary group, but the latter which has to control the journal" .
(Franz Mehring, op. cit., vol. iv, pp. 214 and 267).

POSITION OF THE LEADERS 139

approval of most of the delegates and without arousing any dis-
approval from the others. Yet anti-militarism is a logical con-
sequence of socialism, and for such a party as the socialist, anti-
militarist propaganda must surely be a matter of primary im-
portance. Vollmar, however^ justified his attitude by remarking
that if a systematic anti-militarist propaganda were to be un-
dertaken, the Minister of War would have a pretext ready to his
hand for disregarding all the protests and complaints which
might be made by the socialist deputies on account of the dif-
ferential treatment of soldiers known to hold socialist views.
If, for example, the party representatives in parliament were to
take action against the secret inquiries which the authorities are
accustomed to make and to transmit to the district commanders,
sending in the names of recruits who before enlistment have
been in the habit of frequenting socialist meetings and have
even been known as local leaders, the minister could readily
reply, and with effect, that socialists, being anti-militarists, are
enemies of their country and as such deserve to be handled with
all possible rigour. Volhnar concluded by saying: "Anti-
militarist propaganda will make it impossible for the socialists
in parliament to continue to assert that socialists fulfil their mili-
tary duties no less patriotically than non-socialists, and that for
this reason it is unjust to subject them to exceptional treat-
ment."*

It is well known that great efforts have been made by the par-
liamentary socialist groups in every country to secure for their
members ex-officio the right to vote at the party congresses. In
Germany this right was recognized in 1890 by the congress of
Berlin, with the unimportant restriction that in questions con-
cerning their parliamentary activities the rights of the members
of the group in congress should be purely deliberative. Despite
some opposition, this right was confirmed in the new rules of
the party which were passed at the Jena congress in 1905, It
is obvious that the deputy, even if he does not as such possess the
right to vote, will not find much difficulty in securing delegation
to the congress. Auer once said that those deputies who were
not thus delegated must be poor fellows indeed.^ Nevertheless

; * ProtoJcoll des Parteitags su Bremen, p, 186.

" " In any case, since, in view of their responsibilities to the party, their
presence at the congress may be indispensable, it should not be made
necessary for them to go about begging for a mandate" {ProtoTcoll des
Parteitags su Berlin, 1890, p. 122).

140 POLITICAL PARTIES

they have been saved this trifling trouble. Thus the members
of the parliamentary group are admitted to an active partici-
pation in the most intimate deliberations of the party, not as
delegates approved by a vote of the branch to which they belong,
but as representatives of the entire electorate of their constit-
uency for the whole period for which they are elected to the leg-
islature. This involves an express recognition of their position
as leaders (and a further admission that this leadership owes its
origin in part to non-party sources), and obviously raises them
to the position of super-comrades independent of the rank and
file of the party, or makes them irremovable delegates for so long
as they may remain members of the Eeichstag. This institu-
tion is certainly peculiar to Germany. In other countries iden-
tical rules apply for the appointment of all delegates to the con-
gress, whether these may happen to be parliamentary representa-
tives or not.® In France and Holland, for instance, the deputies
can take part in the congresses, and are able to vote in these only
if they are specially delegated for the purpose. In Italy, the
members of the executive committee and the members of the
parliamentary group cannot speak in the congress unless they
are charged by the executive committee to present a report of
some kind. In Italy, as in France and Holland, they can vote
only when regularly delegated.

Yet in view of their greater competence in various questions,
the socialist parliamentary groups consider themselves superior
even to the congresses, which are in theory the supreme courts
of the party, and they claim an effective autonomy. The mem-
bers of the parliamentary group obey a natural tendency to re-
strict more and more the circle of questions which must be sub-
mitted to the congress for decision, and to make themselves the
sole arbiters of the party destinies. In Germany, many of the
socialist deputies put forward a claim in 1903 to decide for them-
selves, independently of the party congresses, whether the par-
liamentary group should or should not accept the vice-presidency
of the Reichstag for one of its members, and whether, if this post
were accepted, the socialist vice-president should conform to the
usage attaching to this office, and put in appearances at court.'^

^*'Avanti," No. 3433, Nevertheless, in these other countries the lead-
ing roles in the socialist congresses are played by the parliamentary repre-
sentatives.

' This claim was endorsed by certain aspirants to parliamentary honours
who had recently failed to secure election. Bebel wrote ironically in

POSITION OF THE LEADERS 141

In Italy, the socialist and the republican parliamentary groups
have secured complete independence of the executives of their
respective parties. The socialist group has even been accused at
times of accepting deputies who are not even regular members
of the party, men who contend that their electors would look
askance should they adhere officially to the local socialist organi-
zation.

The parliamentary leaders of the socialist as well as those of
the capitalist parties assume the right to constitute a closed cor-
poration, cut off from the rest of their party.^ The parlia-
mentary group of the German socialists has on more than one
occasion, and of its own initiative, disavowed the actions of con-
siderable sections of the party. The most notable of such dis-
avowals have been those of the article The Usury of Bread, in the
"Leipziger Volkszeitung" (1904)/ and that of the anti-militarist
agitation of Karl Liebknecht (1907). In the former instance,
the "Leipziger Volkszeitung" could very well console itself for
the disapproval of the "fifty-seven comrades" (i.e. the members
of the parliamentary group) as that of an infinitesimal minority
of the party — in accordance with the historic and typically dem-
ocratic utterance of the Abbe Sieyes on the eve of the French
Eevolution, when he said that the rights of the king bore to

this connection: "Eemarkable logic! If H. had secured a seat at the
last election he would have regarded himself as competent to decide upon
this question. But since he has been beaten at the polls he is incompetent.
One must therefore be elected deputy in order to secure the necessary
mental illumination."

* " In this atmosphere of bourgeois parliamentarism, which is so foreign
to the essential nature of socialism, the social democracy, involuntarily
and unconsciously, has assumed many of the customs of this parliamentarism
which harmonize ill with the democratic characteristics of socialism. In
the writer's view, the appearance of the parliamentary group as a closed
corporation (not merely vis-a-vis the capitalist parties, which is necessary,
but also vis-a-vis our own party) is such a development of bourgeois parlia-
mentarism, and may lead to grave inconveniences" (Rosa Luxemburg,
Sozialreform oder Eevolution? Appendix, Miliz und Militarisrmis, ed. of
the "Leipziger Volkszeitung," Leipzig, 1899, p. 75).

*The declaration made by the party executive in the affair of the **Leip-
ziger Volkszeitung" begins as follows: "On Saturday, the 10th inst., when,
after the speech of comrade von Vollmar, the Imperial Chancellor brought
up for discussion the subject of the article in the 'Leipziger Volkszeitung'
of December 2nd, those members of the parliamentary group who were
present agreed to instruct comrade Bebel to state in his speech that the
group regretted the publication of this article and repudiated responsibility
for it."

142 POLITICAL PARTIES

those of his subjects the ratio of 1 : 30,000,000. As a matter of
pure theory, and considering the democratic principles of the
party, the paper here hit the right nail on the head ; but in prac-
tice its contention had no significance, for to the ineffective right
of principle there was opposed the right of the stronger, imma-
nent in the leadership.

The local branches of the party follow their deputies. In the
congresses the great majority of the delegates accept as a matter
of habit the guidance of the men of note.^° At the Bremen con-
gress in 1904 the German socialists rejected the idea of the gen-
eral strike as a general absurdity; at Jena, in 1905, they ac-
claimed it as an official weapon of the party ; at Mannheim, in
1906, they declared it to be Utopian. All the individual phases
of this zigzag progress were hailed with the conscientious ap-
plause of the mass of the delegates in the congress and of the
comrades throughout the country, who exhibited on each occa-
sion the same lack of critical faculty and the same unthinking
enthusiasm. In France, the little handful of men who consti-
tuted the general staff of the French Marxists when these stiU
formed a separate party under the leadership of Jules Guesde
was so permeated with the authoritarian spirit that at the party
congresses the executive committee (Comite National) was not
elected in due form, but was appointed en hloc by acclamation ; ^^

^* Cramer, deputy to the Hessian diet, in his report concerning a divisional
conference in the Grand Duchy, deplores the comparatively slight demo-
cratic value which the party congresses have for the mass of the delegates,
and how little these assert themselves in opposition to the despotic con-
duct of the leaders. "In the press of business" a proposal sent in before
the opening of the session that the conference should last for two days
instead of one was completely ignored. "I feel compelled to say that the
propagandist value of the last conference must be regarded as infinitesimal.
The work was done in such a hurry, freedom of debate was suppressed
so roughly by the chair, and there were so many other disagreeable features,
that the conference was in truth a painful spectacle" ("Mainzer Volks-
zeitung, " September 16, 1903).

*^This practice continues to the present day in the Unified French
Socialist party. At the Amiens congress in January 1914, the election
of the executive committee (Commission Administrative Permanente) was
postponed until the very end of the congress, when a large proportion of
the delegates had already left and when those who remained were tired out.
The re-election en hloc of the executive was then proposed, with the sub-
stitution of one name for that of Francis de Pressense, recently deceased,
and the most important administrative act of the congress was thus effected
under conditions which made any discussion of the personnel of the execu-
tive quite impossible.

POSITION OF THE LEADERS 143

it was impossible for the chiefs to conceive that the rank and
file of the party could dream of refusing to follow their leaders.
Moreover, the congi-esses were conducted m camera}'^ Eeports
were published in an extremely condensed form so that no one
could check the speakers. In the German socialist congresses, and
in the reports of these assemblies, it is easy to distinguish between
a higher and a lower circle of delegates. The report of what is
said by the ''ordinary" delegates is greatly abbreviated,^^ whilst
the speeches of the big guns are reproduced verbatim. In the
party press, too, different measures are applied to the comrades.
In the year 1904^ when "Vorwarts," then edited by Eisner, did
not publish a letter sent by Bebel, the latter moved heaven and
earth with his complaints, saying that freedom of opinion was
being suppressed in the party and that it was "the most ele-
mentary right" for all the comrades to have their letters printed
in the party organs. Yet it is hardly possible to ignore that the
"right" which Bebel thus invoked is in practice proportional to
a comrade's degree of elevation in the party. The excitement
over the non-appearance of Bebel 's letter shows that his case
was an exceptional one.

In the trade-union movement, the authoritative character of
the leaders and their tendency to rule democratic organizations
on oligarchic lines, are even more pronounced than in the polit-
ical organizations.^*

Innumerable facts recorded in the history of trade-union or-
ganizations show to what an extent centralized bureaucracy can
divert from democracy a primarily democratic working-class
movement. In the trade union, it is even easier than in the polit-
ical labour organization, for the officials to initiate and to pursue
a course of action disapproved of by the majority of the workers
they are supposed to represent. It suffices here to refer to the
two famous decisions of the trade-union congress at Cologne in
1905. In one of these the leaders declared themselves to be

"Georges Sorel, Dove va il marxismo?, "Eivista Critica del Socialismo, "
i, p. 16 (1889).

"Eduard David, Falction und Parteitag, "Vorwarts, " anno xxii, No.
131.

" " In the socialist party, owing to the nature of the matters with which
it has to deal and owing to the characteristics of the political struggle,
narrower limits are imposed upon bureaucracy than in the case of the
trade-union movement" (Rosa Luxemburg, Massenstreik, Partei, und
GewerTcschaften, ed. cit., p. 61). This cautious expression of the differ-
ences may be accepted.

144 POLITICAL PARTIES

opposed (in opposition to the views of the majority) to the con-
tinued observance of the 1st of May as a general labour demon-
stration of protest. In the second, the discussion of the general
strike was absolutely forbidden. By these and similar occur-
rences the oligarchical practices of the leaders are sufficiently
proved, although some writers continue to dispute the fact.^^

For a good many years now, the executive committees of the
trade-union federations have endeavoured to usurp the exclusive
right to decide on behalf of the rank and file the rhythm of the
movement for better wages, and consequently the right to decide
whether a strike is or is not ' ' legitimate. ' ' ^^ Since the leaders
of the federation are in charge of the funds, which often amount
to a considerable sum, the dispute reduces itself in practice to a
question as to vvho is to decide whether a strike shall or shall not
be subsidized.^^ This question is one which involves the very life
of the democratic right of the organized masses in the trade
unions to regulate their own affairs. "When the leaders claim
that they alone have a right to decide in a matter of such impor-
tance, and still more when they already largely possess this right,

^^Heinrich Strobel, for instance, a writer on the staff of ''Vorwarts. "
"We at least do not believe that the majority of trade-union members
favour tactics differing from those pursued by the trade-union officials.
Unfortunately the majority of the trade unions, owing to the 'neutrality'
which they have observed for some years, have become politically indiffer-
ent, and judge the trade-union movement in practice only from the out-
look of the petty and immediate interests of their respective trades" (H.
Strobel, Gewerlcschaften mid sosialistische Geist, ' ' Neue Zeit, ' ' xxiii, vol.
ii. No. 44).

^^ This has recently happened also in Italy (cf . Einaldo Eigola, Ventun
mesi di Vita della Confederasione del Lavoro, Tip. Coop., Turin, 1908, pp.
62 et seq.).

" In practice, the executive committees have been able, to a large extent,
to make good their claim to decide this matter. To-day the decision
whether a strike is or is not to take place rarely depends upon local groups,
but is in the hands of the central executives. One well acquainted with'
labour organizations. Otto Geithner of Berlin, a carpenter by trade, quotes
the argument employed by the trade-union leaders to justify this tendency,
which runs as follows: ''Since the executive committees of the unions have
to supply the financial means it is necessary that the decision should be
in their hands" ("Korrespondenzblatt der Generalkommission der Gewerk-
schaften Deutschlands, " anno vii, No. 28). Geithner makes the apt com-
ment that this seems to imply that the poor officials have to pay the cost
of the strike out of their own pockets, that the funds of the union are
ends in themselves, and that the movement to secure better wages is an
unimportant accessory (Otto Geithner, zur TaTctik der Sosialdemokratie,
Betrachtungen eines Lohnarbeiters, "Neue Zeit," anno xxiii, No. 47).

POSITION OF THE LEADERS 145

it is obvious that the most essential democratic principles are
gravely infringed. The leaders have openly converted them-
selves into an oligarchy, leaving to the masses who provide the
funds no more than the duty of accepting the decisions of that
oligarchy.^^ This abuse of power may perhaps find justification
on tactical grounds, the leaders alleging in defence of their proce-
dure the supreme need that a strike should be declared cau-
tiously and in unison. They claim the right to decide the merits
of the question on the sole ground that they know better than
the workers themselves the conditions of the labour market
throughout the country and are consequently more competent to
judge the chances of success in the struggle. The trade-union
leaders add that since the stoppage of work in a town necessarily
impairs the financial strength of the union in that town, and
sometimes disturbs the conditions of work of a whole series of
organized workers, it is for the leaders to decide when and where
a strike should be declared. Thus they consider that their action
is justified by the democratic aim of safeguarding the interests
of the majority against the impulsive actions of the minority.^^

'^Some time ago a notice went the rounds of the socialist press in Ger-
many, under the headline The View Taken by Employers of Trade-union
Officials. This was an extremely characteristic document. It runs as fol-
lows: "The federation of employers in the buildiag trade of Greater
Berlin is opposed to the foundation of conciliation boards, but has made a
notable proposal in the eveiit of these being instituted by law. The em-
ployers demand that in this case it shall be ordained by the law that the
officials of the professional associations of the employers and also those of
the trade unions shall be eligible for appointment to the boards. It^ is
alleged as a reason that it is much easier and more fruitful to negotiate with
the trained employees of the unions than with workers who are still engaged
in manual labour and who lack the necessary ability and independence
("Frankische Tagespost," February 26, 1909). Two considerations may
be deduced from this notice: 1, that in the view of the more intelligent
among the employers the trade-union leader is independent of his union,
in other words, that he leads it; 2, that this independence has already be-
come so considerable that the leaders do not hesitate to admit it openly
before the led, and even make a parade of their power.— Eegarding the
omnipotence of the leaders of the English unions cf. Fausto Pagliari: "In
the unions . . . there has come into existence a bureaucracy which is prac-
tically irresistible and which rules the organization as an absolute master,
and the unity and efficiency of the administration are enhanced by the
sacrifice of democratic guarantees and of the education of the rank and
file in the methods of trade-union action" (L'organizsasione operaia m
Europa, Societa Umanitaria, Milan, 1909, 2ud ed., p. 54).

"This was the principal argument employed by the German Metal-
workers' Federation against the metal-workers' strike at Mannheim in

146 POLITICAL PARTIES

We are not here concerned, however, with the causation of the
oligarchy which prevails in the trade unions. It suffices to point
out how little difference exists between the tendencies of prole-
tarian oligarchies and those of such oligarchies as prevail in the
life of the state — governments, courts^, etc. It is interesting to
note that in Germany, as elsewhere, the socialist leaders do not
hesitate to admit the existence of a well-developed oligarchy in
the trade-union movement ; while the leaders of the trade unions,
in their turn, draw attention to the existence of an oligarchy in
the socialist party ; both groups of leaders unite however in de-
claring that as far as their own organizations are concerned these
are quite immune to oligarchical infection.^"

Nevertheless, the trade-union leaders and the leaders of the
socialist party sometimes combine upon a course of action which,
were it undertaken by either group of leaders alone, those of the
other group would not fail to stigmatize as grossly undemocratic.
For example, in the serious question of the 1st of May demon-
stration, one of primary democratic importance in the year 1908,
the executive committee of the socialist party and the general
committee of the trade unions issued by common accord an an-
nouncement definitely decreeing from above the conduct of the
separate political and trade-union organizations. In a question
thus profoundly affecting the individual trade unions and local
socialist committees, the executives regarded it as quite unnec-
essary to ask these for their opinion.^^ Such conduct shows how
much justification there is for the criticism which each of the
two branches of the working-class movement directs against the
other. Moreover, the question which has been debated whether
the local trades councils might not be directly represented at the
trade-union congresses is after all merely one of the enlargement
of the oligarchical circle.

Let us next briefly consider the third form of the working-
class movement, cooperative organizations, and in particular the

October 1908 (Adolf Weber, Der Kampf swiseJien Kapital und Arlteit,
Mohr, Tubingen, 1910, p. 30).

""Cf. articles by K. Kautsky, H. Strobel, Eosa Luxemburg, Parvus, and
Anton Pannekoek, on the one hand, and, on the other, those which have
appeared in the trade-union press discussing the eternal politics of the
socialist party (for example, those published during the dispute that
broke out in December 1905 in the matter of the editorship of *'Vor-
warts"); here there wiU be found innumerable documents to sustain what
has been said in the text.

^ ' ' "Volksstimme ' ' of Frankfort, anno xix, No. 22, supplement 3.

POSITION OF THE LEADERS 147

organizations for cooperative production, as those which in their
very nature should incorporate most perfectly the democratic
principle.

As far as concerns distributive cooperative societies, it is easy ?'
to understand that these cannot be directly governed by the
mass of the members. As Kautsky has shown, we are here con-
cerned with an enterprise whose functions are essentially com-
mercial, and therefore outside the competence of the rank and
file.X. For this reason, the principal business activities of these
societies must be entrusted to the employees and to a few ex-
perts. "Unless we consider buying as cooperation, in which case
the customers of an ordinaiy shopman are also cooperators with
the shopman, the members of a cooperative society have nothing
more to do with the management than have the shareholders of
a limited company; they choose their managing committee, and
then leave the machine to run itself, waiting till the end of the
year to express their approval or disapproval of the management,
and to pocket their dividends. " ^- In actual fact, the distribu-
tive cooperative societies present in general a monarchical aspect.
Eead, for example, what was written by a well-disposed critic
concerning the cooperative society "Vooruit" of Ghent, which
is led by Edouard Anseele, the socialist, and which is definitely
socialist in its tendency: *'Cette prosperity et cette bonne ad-
ministration ne vont pas sans quelques sacrifices a la sacrosainte
liberte ouvriere. Le 'Vooruit' tout-entier porte I'empreinte de
la forte personalite qui I'a cree. . . . Une volonte puissante,
avide a revendiquer des responsabilites, alors que d'autres recu-
lent sans cesse devant les responsabilites, s'enivre presque tou-
jours d'elle-meme. M. Anseele, grand industriel de fait, a vo-
lontiers les manieres impetueuses, imperieuses et brusques des
capitaines d 'industrie les plus bourgeois, et le ' Vooruit ' n 'est rien
moins qu'une republique anarchique. II repose plutot sur le
principe d 'autorite. " ^^

Societies for cooperative production, on the other hand, and
especially the smaller of these, offer in theory the best imag-
inable field for democratic collaboration. They consist of homo-
geneous elements belonging to the same stratum of the working
class, of persons following the same trade, and accustomed to
the same manner of life. In so far as the society needs a man-

^'Karl Kautsky, Konsumvereine und Arheiterbewegung, ed. cit., p. 17.
^'"Pourquoi pas?" Brussels, anno ii, No. 97.

148 POLITICAL PARTIES

agement, this management can readily be effected by all the
members in common, since all possess the same professional com-
petence, and all can lend a hand as advisers and coadjutors. In
a political party it is impossible that every member should be
engaged in important political vsrork, and it is for this reason
that in the political party there necessarily exists a great gulf
between the leaders and the rank and file. But in a society for
cooperative production, for boot-making for example, all the
members are equally competent in the making of boots, the use
of tools, and knowledge of the quality of leather. There do not
exist among them any essential differences in matters of tech-
nical knowledge. Yet despite the fact that the circumstances
are thus exceptionally favourable for the constitution of a demo-
cratic organism, we cannot as a general rule regard productive
cooperatives as models of democratic auto-administration. Rod-
bertus said on one occasion that when he imagined productive as-
sociations to have extended their activities to include all manu-
facture, commerce, and agriculture, when he conceived all social
work to be effected by small cooperative societies in whose man-
agement every member had an equal voice, he was unable to avoid
the conviction that the economic system would succumb to the
cumbrousness of its own machinery.^* The history of productive
cooperation shows that all the societies have been faced with the
following dilemma: either they succumb rapidly owing to dis-
cord and powerlessness resulting from the fact that too many in-
dividuals have the right to interfere in their administration;
or else they end by submitting to the will of one or of a few
persons, and thus lose their truly cooperative character.^^ In
almost all cases, such enterprises owe their origin to the personal
initiative of one or a few members. They are sometimes minia-
ture monarchies, being under the dictatorship of the manager,
who represents them in all internal and external relations, and
upon whose will they depend so absolutely that if he dies or re-
signs his post they run the risk of perishing.^^ This tendency on

^Karl Eodbertus, Offener Brief an das Komitee des deutschen ArTjeiter-
vereins su Leipzig, in F. Lassalle's Politische Beden und Scliriften, ed.
eit., vol. ii, p. 9.

^^Cf. the identical judgment expressed by Frederick van Eeden, the
founder and for many years the manager of a cooperative colony in the
neighborhood of Amsterdam. His views were expressed in an interview
published by the cooperative newspaper ' ' De Volharding, ' ' anno v, No. 8.

^^Lomberto Paoletti, op. cit., pp. 273-274.

POSITION OF THE LEADERS 149

the part of the productive cooperative societies is further ac-
centuated by their character as aggregates of individuals whose
personal advantages decrease in proportion as the number of the
members increases. Thus from their very nature they are sub-
ject to the same immutable psychological laws which governed
the evolution of the medieval guilds. As they become more pros-
perous, they become also more exclusive, and tend always to
monopolize for the benefit of the existing members the advan-
tages they have been able to secure. For example, by imposing
a high entrance-fee they put indirect obstacles in the way of the
entry of new members. In some cases they simply refuse to ac-
cept new members, or pass a rule establishing a maximum mem-
bership. When they have need of more labour-power they sup-
ply this need by engaging ordinary wage-labourers. Thus we
not infrequently find that a society for cooperative production
becomes gradually transformed into a joint-stock company. It
even happens occasionally that the cooperative society becomes
the private enterprise of the manager. In both these cases Kaut-
sky is right in saying that the social value of the working-class
cooperative is then limited to the provision of means for certain
proletarians which will enable them to climb out of their own
class into a higher.^'^ Eodbertus described labour associations as
a school for the education of the working class, in which the man-
ual workers could learn administration, discussion, and within
limits the art of government.^* We have seen to how small an
extent this statement is applicable.

Vin the democratic movement the personal factor thus plays a
very considerable part. In the smaller associations it is often
predominant.^" In the larger organizations, larger questions
commonly lose the personal and petty characteristics which they
originally possessed, but all the same the individuals who bring
these questions forward, and who in a sense come to personify

^' Karl Kautsky, Konsumvereine und Arbeiterhewegung , ed. cit., p. 6. —
More recently the socialist professor, Gaetano Salvemini, speaking of the
extensive and in many respects noteworthy movement towards cooperative
production in Central Italy, has referred to it as a leech applied to the
body of the proletariat and as a buttress of the dominant parasitism, and
has declared that its aim is to enrich the minority at the expense of the
collectivity. (Cf. the series of articles Cooperative di Lavoro e Movimento
socialista, "Avanti, " anno xiv, Nos. 174 et seq.)

^Eodbertus, op. cit., p. 9.

" This statement is confirmed by the testimony of the German socialist
Otto Geithner, who says: "He who like myself has had some experience

150 POLITICAL PARTIES

them, retain their influence and importance. In England, three
or four men, Macdonald, Keir Hardie, Henderson, and Clynes,
for instance, enjoy the confidence of the socialist masses so un-
restrictedly that, as an able observer declares, it is impossible to
exercise an influence upon the rank and file except by influencing
these leaders.^" In Italy, the first among the leaders of the trade-
union organizations has affirmed that those only which are headed
by a good organizer can continue in existence. "Categories of
the most various trades, found in the most diverse environments,
have been unable to secure organization and to live through
crises, except in so far as they have been able to find first-class
men to manage their affairs. Those which have had bad leaders
have not succeeded in establishing organizations; or the organi-
zations if formed have proved defective. " ^^ In Germany, the
supreme authority of Bebel was manifested by a thousand signs/^
from the joy with which he was hailed wherever he went, to the
efforts always made in the various congresses by the representa-
tives of different tendencies to win him over to their side. More-
over, the working-class leaders are well aware of their ascend-
ancy over the masses. Sometimes political opportunism leads
them to deny it, but more commonly they are extremely proud
of it and boast of it. In Italy, and in other countries as well,
the socialist leaders have always claimed that the bourgeoisie and
the government are greatly indebted to them for having held
the masses in check, and as having acted as moderators to the
impulsive crowd. This amounts to saying that the socialist
leaders claim the merit, and consequently the power, of prevent-
ing the social revolution, which, according to them, would, in
default of their intervention, have long ago taken place.^^ Dis-
union in parties, although often evoked by objective necessities,

(and I have been an observer of the labour movement for nearly fifteen
years), cannot fail to be aware that in small organizations questions of
fact are almost always overshadowed by personal considerations, to which
an exaggerated importance is attached" (Discussion in "Vorwarts, " anno
xxiii, No. 137),

^"M. Beer's report on the 9th annual congress of the British Labour
Party, "Frankische Tagespost," anno xli, No. 28 (1909),

^^ Einaldo Eigola, I Funsionari delle Organissasioni, ' * Avanti, ' ' anno xiv,
No. 341.

^^Cf. the excellent description given by Albert Weidner, Bebel, "Der
Arme Teufel," anno ii, No. 21 (1903),

^^Cf. the well-known speech of Camillo Prampolini in the Chamber of
Deputies March 13, 1902 (Tip. Op., Eeggio Emilia, 1902, p. 24); also

POSITION OF THE LEADERS 151

is almost always the work of the leaders. The masses never
oppose the reconciliation of their chiefs, partly, no doubt, be-
cause the differences between the leaders, in so far as they are of
an objective character, are for the most part outside the narrow
circle of interests and the limited understanding of the rank
and file.^*

' The esteem of the leaders for the masses is not as a rule very
profound, even though there are some among them who profess
great enthusiasm for the masses and repay with interest the hon-
our which these render. In the majority of cases the veneration
is a one-sided affair, if only for the reason that the leaders have
had an opportunity of learning the miseries of the crowd by first-
hand experience. Fourniere said that the socialist leaders re-
garded the crowd, which had entrusted them with the fulfilment
of its own aspirations and which consisted of devoted followers,
as a passive instrument in their own hands, as a series of ciphers
whose only purpose was to increase the value of the little figure
standing to the left. "N'en a-t-il qu'un a sa droite, il ne vaut
que pour dix ; en a-t-il six, il vaut pour un million. ' ' ^^

The differences in education and competence which actually
exist among the members of the party are reflected in the dif-
ferences in their functions. It is on the ground of the incompe-
tence of the masses that the leaders justify the exclusion of these
from the conduct of affairs. They contend that it would be con-
trary to the interests of the party if the minority of the com-
rades who have closely followed and attentively studied the ques-
tions under consideration should be overruled by the majority
which does not really possess any reasoned opinion of its own
upon the matters at issue. This is why the chiefs are opposed
to the referendum, at any rate as far as concerns its introduction 1
into party life. "The choice of the right moment for action
demands a comprehensive view which only a few individuals in

numerous articles and speeches by Filippo Turati, as for example II partito
socialista e I'attuale momento politico ("Critica Sociale," Milan, 1902, 3rd
edition, p. 15), and his speech to the 7th Italian Socialist Congress at
Imola in 1902 (Bendiconto, Lib. Soc. Ital., Eome, 1903, p. 54).

^Mermeix (La France socialiste. Notes d'un contemporain, Fetscherin et
Chuit, Paris, 1886 3rd ed., p. 138) wrote as long ago as 1886 with ref-
erence to the struggle between the Marxists and the possibilists which
occurred in 1875: "Si les chefs pouvaient se donner la main, 1 'union serait
parfaite dans le parti ouvrier." As every one knows, this prophecy waa
fulfilled in 1904.

^ E. Fourniere, La sociocratie, ed. cit., p. 117.

152 POLITICAL PARTIES

the mass can ever possess^, whilst the majority are guided by mo-
mentary impressions and currents of feeling, A limited body of
officials and confidential advisers, in closed session, where they
are removed from the influence of coloured press reports, and
where every one can speak without fearing that his words will
be bruited in the enemy's camp, is especially likely to attain
to an objective judgment."^®

To justify the substitution of the indirect vote for the direct
vote, the leaders invoke, in addition to political motives, the com-
plicated structure of the party organization. Yet for the state
organization, which is infinitely more complicated, direct legis-
lation by means of the initiative and the referendum is an in-
tegral part of the socialist programme.^^ The antinomy which
underlies these different ways of looking at the same thing ac-
cording as it presents itself in the politics of the state or in
those of the party pervades the whole life of the latter.

The working-class leaders sometimes openly avow, with a sin-
cerity verging on cynicism, their own superiority over the troops
they command, and may go so far as to declare their firm inten-
tion to refuse to these latter any facility for dictating the leaders'
conduct. The leaders even reserve to themselves the right of

^^ Eduard Bernstein, GewerJcschaftsdemoJcratie, ' ' Sozial. Monatsh., ' ' 1909,
p. 86.

^^ Cf ., for example, Hans Block, Ueherspannung der DemoTcratie, "Neue
Zeit, " xxvi. No. 8, p. 266. The author himself sees very clearly how the
reasons applied by him to combat democracy within the party are equally
applicable against democracy in the state. He therefore takes occasion
to cleave democracy in two, and to make a distinction between its applica-
tion in party life and in the life of the state. He writes: "Our pro-
gramme, however, demands direct election, rejecting indirect. It also con-
tains the demand for direct legislation by the people through the initiative
and the referendum. But elections and votes which concern the life of the
state cannot be compared with those which concern party organization.
The circumstances are altogether different. In the case of the state, the
matters under consideration have taken shape long before the time comes
for the vote; the persons involved have already assumed definite positions.
The problem is plain and is plainly formulated from the first. Very different
is the matter in party life, where even in the last weeks before the annual
congress important proposals and recoramendations come up for discussion
of which an organization which insisted upon employing the ponderous
mechanism of the direct vote could not possibly take account" (p. 265). — ■
This distinction is in truth utterly fictitious. It is incomprehensible that
the affairs of a party, whose organization when compared with that of the
state is small and simple, can be more complicated than those of the state
itself, and that therefore a violation of democratic principles can be
more readily justified in the case of the party than in the case of the state.

POSITION OF THE LEADERS 153

rebelling against the orders they receive. A typical example,
among many, is the opinion expressed on this subject by Filippo
Turati, an exceptionally intelligent and well-informed man and
one of the most influential members of the Italian socialist party,
in a labour congress held at Rome in 1908. Referring to the
position of the socialist deputy in relation to the socialist masses,
he said: "The socialist parliamentary group is always at the
disposal of the proletariat, as long as the group is not asked to
undertake absurdities. " ^s it need hardly be said that in each
particular case it is the deputies who have to decide whether the
things they are asked to do are or are not "absurd." ^^

^ This speech was made in a Convegno pro Amnistia on March 31, 1908,
reported in the Turin "Stampa, " xvii, No. 92.

^° Essentially this view is held also by Eduard Bernstein, who, however,
in correspondence with his thoughtful and amiable character, expresses it
more mildly, and endeavours to justify it by serious reasons. He tells
us that the leader is not the mere mouthpiece of the masses, but has to
decide on behalf of the masses what are their true interests. To quote
his actual words: "Bebel contends that the leaders should follow the
masses. This is not my view. I consider that the so-called ' leaders, ' that is
to say the confidential agents of the workers, hold the position of experts
on behalf of the working class. Unquestionably they must cooperate
harmoniously with those from whom they derive their power, but above all
they must act in accordance with their own best convictions of what
the interests of the working class really demand; when it is needful they
must oppose the views of the workers, and make their own opinions prevail.
We must not allow ourselves to be carried away by transitory currents.
Bebel laughs at the idea of reserving certain questions for the decision
of the parliamentary group. But is it not quite right to hold that the
deputies, who are always in the Reichstag, can judge certain questions
better than those who are not members of this body? Unless it be in-
tended to pass a vote of no-confidence in the group, the question with
which we are now concerned can surely be left to its judgment" (Eduard
Bernstein, speaking at the socialist party congress, Dresden, 1903, Protokoll
Hber die Verhandlnngen des Farteitages, Buchh. "Vorwarts, " Berlin, 1903,
p. 309). Some years earlier Bernstein expressed the view that the control
of the masses over their leaders must be restricted to those questions which
profoundly concern the interests of the masses and which are not of too
specialized a character — but he fails to give us any more precise indication
as to the nature of these questions (Eduard Bernstein Zur Geschichte und
Theorie des Sosialismus, Edelheim, Berlin, 1901, p. 205). Other leaders
believe that they can attain the same end, and effect in a less honour-
able way what in German journalistic language is described as "shepherd-
ing the masses." A German trade-union leader has actually declared in
writing that the leaders must sometimes say things which are contrary to
their own opinions simply because they thus please the masses, "because
the masses become wise only after they have burned their own fingers";
and that it is easier for them to act in this way, because "it is always

154 POLITICAL PARTIES

The accumulation of power in the hands of a restricted num-
ber of persons, such as ensues in the labour movement to-day ,^°
necessarily gives rise to numerous abuses. The * ' representative, ' '
proud of his indispensability, readily becomes transformed from
a servitor of the people into their master.''^ The leaders, who
have begun by being under obligations to their subordinates,
become in the long run the lords of these: such is the ancient
truth which was recognized by Goethe when he made Mephisto-
pheles say that man always allows himself to be ruled by his own
creatures. The very party which fights against the usurpations
of the constituted authority of the state submits as by natural
necessity to the usurpations effected by its own constituted au-
thorities. The masses are far more subject to their leaders than
to their governments, and they bear from the former abuses of
power which they would never tolerate from the latter.*^ The
lower classes sometimes react forcibly against oppression from
above, and take bloody reprisals, as happened in the French Jac-
queries, in the German Peasants' Wars, in the English revolts
under Wat Tyler and Jack Cade, and more recently in the revolts
of the Sicilian Fasci in 1893 ; whereas they do not perceive the
tyranny of the leaders they have themselves chosen. If at length
the eyes of the masses are opened to the crimes against the demo-
cratic ideal which are committed by their party leaders, their
astonishment and their stupor are unbounded. If, however, they
then rise in rebellion, the nature of their criticisms shows how
little they have understood the true character of the problem.
Far from recognizing the real fount of the oligarchical evil in
the centralization of power within the party, they often consider
that the best means of counteracting oligarchy is to intensify this
very centralization.^^

within their power as masters to do what their own enlightened intelligence
suggests without the masses understanding what they are about" (Tischen-
dorfer in the " Korrespondenzblatt der Generalkommission der Gewerk-
sehaften Deutschlands, " quoted by Otto Geithner, Zwr Tdktih der Sozial-
demoTcratie, "Neue Zeit, " anno xxiii, vol. ii, p. 657).

*» Cf . p. 64.

^ This possibility has been admitted even by Kautsky (Karl Kautsky,
WaMkreis und Partie, "Neue Zeit," xxii No. 28, p. 36).

*^ " It is well known that the people finds it far easier to get the
better of kings than of legislative assemblies" (Karl Marx, "Neue Eheinis-
che Zeitung," November 11, 1848).

^'This ineptitude was conspicuously displayed in the debates which took
place in Germany concerning the 1st of May demonstrations (see p. 146).
Shortly after the oflQ.cial orders upon this subject had been issued, a meet-

POSITIOX OF THE LEADERS 155

ing of the socialist branch of Lfcipzig, a branch noted for its revolutionary
spirit and subject to the influence of Marxist extremists such as Mehring and
Lensch, took up a definite position in favour of the 1st of May celebration.
In this year (1908) certain concessions had been made by the Leipzig
police in the matter of the procession, so that the celebration promised'
to be more imposing than ever. Consequently in the socialist branch at
Leipzig vigorous protests Tvere made against the executive committee of
the party, which, in agreement Tvith the executive of the trade-union
organizations, had decided that in future the workers who were discharged
by their employers in consequence of the 1st of May celebrations should
not have any right to out-of-work relief from the central treasury of the
socialist party or from that of the general federation of trade unions, but
that it would be necessary for special local and voluntary funds to be
founded to subsidize the 1st of May manifestants. The resolution passed
by the Leipzig socialists, in criticism of this decision, ran as follows: "The
Leipzig comrades regard this as an attempt to limit by indirect measures
the cessation of work on the 1st of May, and to exercise such an in-
fluence upon the trade unions as to lead the individual trade unions to
revoke their resolutions in favour of the support of those who are dis-
missed by their employers because of participation in the celebration. The
further attempt to throw upon the local organizations responsibility for
and execution of the determinations made by the central organizations is
regarded by the Leipzig comrades as an infringement of the priiiciple of
centralization. The conrrades express their profoundest regret that the
local branches of the party were not consulted, as were the leaders of the
federations, before this decision was arrived at, and they look to the next
party congress to regulate the question of the 1st of May demonstration."
In this resolution, which in the main is identical with the resolutions adopted
by the committees of the party and trade-union branches in Frankfort-on-
the-Main, and which was accepted by the committees of the party and
trade-union branches in Flensburg, Sehleswig (" Volkstimme, " Frankfurt
a/M. xix, 79), the comrades, revolting against the oligarchico-autoeratie
consequences of centralization, seriously proposed a more vigorous carrying
out of the principle of centralization.

CHAPTER V

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE LEADERS AND THE

MASSES

Those who defend the arbitrary acts committed by the democ-
racy, point out that the masses have at their disposal means
whereby they can react against the violation of their rights.
These means consist in the right of controlling and dismissing
their leaders. Unquestionably this defence possesses a certain
theoretical value, and the authoritarian inclinations of the lead-
ers are in some degree attenuated by these possibilities. In states
with a deniocratic tendency and under a parliamentary regime,
to obtain the fall of a detested minister it suffices, in theory, that
the people should be weary of him. In the same way, once
more in theory, the ill-humour and the opposition of a socialist
group or of an election committee is enough to effect the recall
of a deputy 's mandate, and in the same way the hostility of the
majority at the annual congress of trade unions should be enough
to secure the dismissal of a secretary. In practice, however, the
exercise of this theoretical right is interfered with by the work-
ing of the whole series of conservative tendencies to which allu-
sion has previously been made, so that the supremacy of the
autonomous and sovereign masses is rendered purely illusory.
The dread by which Nietzsche was at one time so greatly dis-
turbed, that every individual might become a functionary of the
mass, must be completely dissipated in face of the truth that
while all have the right to become functionaries, few only pos-
sess the possibility.

With the institution of leadership there simultaneously begins,
owing to the long tenure of office, the transformation of the
leaders into a closed caste.^

Unless, as in France, extreme individualism and fanatical po-
litical dogmatism stand in the way, the old leaders present them-
selves to the masses as a compact phalanx — at any rate whenever
the masses are so much aroused as to endanger the position of the
leaders.

^Cf. p. 104.
156

INTERNAL CONFLICT 157

The election of the delegates to congresses, etc., is sometimes
regulated by the leaders by means of special agreements, whereby
the masses are in fact excluded from all decisive influence in the
management of their affairs. These agreements often assume the
aspect of a mutual insurance contract. In the German socialist
party, a few years ago, there came into existence in not a few
localities a regular system in accordance with which the leaders
nominated one another in rotation as delegates to the various
party congresses. In the meetings at which the delegates were
appointed, one of the big guns would always propose to the com-
rades the choice as delegate of the leader whose "turn" it was.
The comrades rarely revolt against such artifices, and often fail
even to perceive them. Thus competition among the leaders is
prevented, in this domain at least ; and at the same time there
is rendered impossible anything more than passive participation,
of the rank and file in the higher functions of the life of that
party which they alone sustain with their subscriptions.^ Not-
withstanding the violence of the intestine struggles which di-
vide the leaders, in all the democracies they manifest vis-a-vis
the masses a vigorous solidarity. "lis eoncoivent bien vite la
necessite de s'accorder entre eux, afin que le parti ne puisse pas
leur echapper en se divisant. ' ' ^ This is true above all of the
German social democracy, in which, in consequence of the excep-
tional solidity of structure which it possesses as compared with
all the other socialist parties of the world, conservative tenden-
cies have attained an extreme development.

When there is a struggle between the leaders and the masses,
the former are always victorious if only they remain united.*
At least it rarely happens that the masses succeed in disembar-
rassing themselves of one of their leaders. At Mannheim, a few
years ago, the organized workers did actually dismiss one of
their chiefs, but not without arousing intense indignation among
the leaders, who described this act of legitimate rebellion as a

' Similar phenomena have been observed in party life in America (Ostro-
gorsky, La Devwcratie, etc., ed. eit., vol. ii, p. 196).

^Antoine Elisee Cherbuliez, Theorie des Garantis constitutioneUes, Ab.
Cherbuliez, Paris, 1838, vol. ii, p. 253.

* Domela Nieuwenhuis once compared the organization of the socialist
party to a flock of sheep with dogs and shepherds. When any member of the
flock endeavours to stray he is immediately driven back by the barking
dogs (Debat tusschen F. Domela Nieuwe7ikuis en H. Gorter over Sociaal-
Bemokratie of AnarcMsme, held at Enschede, October 8, 1904, "Nieuwe
Tijd," p. 17).

158 POLITICAL PAKTIES

crime on the part of the rank and file, and were careful to obtain
another post for the poor victim of popular anger.^ In the course
of great political agitations and in extensive economic struggles
undertaken by the masses against the will of their leaders these
soon reacquire the supremacy which they may for a moment
have lost. Then it often happens that the leaders, over the heads
of the crowd and in opposition to its expressed will, contraven-
ing the fundamental principles of democracy and ignoring all the
legal, logical, and economic bonds which unite the paid leaders
to the paying masses, make peace with the enemy, and order the
close of the agitation or the resumption of work. This is what
happened in the last Italian general strike, and also in the great
strikes at Crimmitschau, Stetten, Mannheim, etc. The masses in
such cases are often sulky, but they never rebel, for they lack
power to punish the treachery of the chiefs. After holding tu-
multuous meetings in which they declare their legitimate and
statutory displeasure, they never fail to provide their leaders
with the democratic fig-leaf of a bill of indemnity. In 1905 the
miners of the Euhr basin were enraged against their leaders when
these had taken it upon themselves to declare the great miners'
strike at an end. It seemed as if on this occasion the oligarchy
was at length to be called to account by the masses.^ A few weeks

^ Adolf Weber, Eapital und Arbeit, ed. cit., p. 380.

*Cf. the series of articles StreiTceindruclce, by Conrad Haenisch, in the
"Sachsische Arbeiterzeitung, " xvi, Nos. 51-58, and the series in the "Leip-
ziger Volkszeitung, " 1905, Nos. 41-44 and 61-63. Haenisch reports: "I
shall never forget the moment when it was announced to the rank and
file that their leaders had suddenly come to a decision without consulting
them. The speech was interrupted by a general shout 'Continue the
strike ! ' and a number of excited miners endeavoured to storm the plat-
form by a side door. Yet it was only a momentary disturbance, for the
stewards soon reduced the 'mutineers' to order. But all the more fiercely
now flamed the wrath of the masses in the street, who had expected any-
thing rather than such a decision. The cart carrying the 255,000 leaflets
announcing the resumption of work, which the committee of seven had had
printed the previous day at an ultramontane printer's, was taken by
assault. Sachse (socialist deputy, president of the miners' federation, and
one of the principal leaders of the strike) was followed to the station
by at least 300 desperately raging miners. Prom the whole of Essen there
arose but one cry, 'Treason!' However absurd and unjust this cry may
have been, the fact that it was uttered gives us a profound iusight into the
intensely disturbed popular mind" ("Sachs. Arbz.," xvi, 58). Again:
"Old and tried comrades came to the editorial offices at Dortmund, in
tears, in an emotional state that I should never have deemed possible to
our sober-minded Westphalians, overwhelming us with desperate accusations

LEADERS' AND MASSES' STRUGGLES 159

later, tranquillity was completely restored, as if it had never
been disturbed. The leaders had defied the anger of their fol-
lowers, and had nevertheless remained in power. In Turin, in
October, 1907, on the third day of the general strike, the workers
had decided by a large majority that the strike should be contin-
ued, but the leaders (the executive committee of the local branch
of the party and the committees of the local trade unions) went
counter to this decision, which ought to have been valid for them,
by issuing a manifesto in which they counselled the strikers to
return to work.'^ In the meetings of the party and of the trades
council which followed upon these events the breach of discipline
was condoned. The rank and file dreaded the resignation of the
leaders and the bad appearance which their organizations would
have displayed in face of the bourgeoisie when deprived of their
best known and most highly esteemed men. Thus the governing
bodies of democratic and socialist parties can in case of need act
entirely at their own discretion, maintaining a virtual independ-
ence of the collectivity they represent, and in practice making
themselves omnipotent.^

■whieh I cannot bring myself to transcribe. The fate of the 255,000 leaflets
destroyed by the tumultuous crowd at Essen was shared by innumerable
pamphlets of the organization. This may give the reader some idea of the
emotions of the organized masses, unaccustomed to discipline! I have
said enough, and shall not attempt to describe the scenes of Thursday and
Friday at all the mass meetings" ("Leipz. Volksz.," 1905, p. 41).

' Whilst the prefect forbade that the decision of the workers to continue
the strike should be put into effect, the local authorities, acting on hia
instructions, did everything they could to secure the adoption of the leaders'
proposal that work should be resumed.

® It is a remarkable psychological phenomenon that the leaders of great
organizations exhibit in private life weaknesses and other deficiencies which
are in singular contrast with the qualities of leadership. The great organizer
Lassalle perished shamefully through his incapacity for conducting to a
happy end an engagement to marry, too lightly undertaken. The domestic
relationships of the great majority of the socialist leaders {nomina sunt
odiosa) are extremely unhappy. The talent for organization and com-
mand often becomes transformed into its opposite within the four walls
of the house. "lis semblent incapables de reflechir et de se conduire dans
les circonstances les plus simples, alors qu'ils savaient si bien conduire
les autres" (Gustave Le Bon, Psycliologie des Foules, Alcan, Paris, 1899,
p. 110). The marriages contracted by most of the socialist leaders are of a
typically bohemian character. Among these leaders those who have been
divorced and those who practise the so-called free love constitute a high
percentage. A happy and retired family life like that of a few of the most
noted among the leaders (Karl Marx, August Bebel, Enrico Ferri) is so
exceptional in the case of socialist marriages that the socialists are in the

160 POLITICAL PARTIES

Such a condition of affairs is essentially oligarchical, and mani-
fold are its consequences in the movements that have been ini-
tiated under the banner of democracy. One of the chief of these
consists in the daily infringement on the part of the executive
of the tactical resolutions whose fulfilment is entrusted to the
executive as a sacred charge by the numerous leaders of the sec-
ond rank who make up the congresses and assemblies of the
party ; ^ hence arises the practice which becomes continually

habit of trumpeting these exceptions widely, referring to them for propa-
ganda purposes in order to repel the accusation so often levelled that they
aim at the disorganization of the family.

® The discipline prescribed for the narrower circle of leaders (executives)
by the resolutions of the wider circle of leaders (congresses) is very
frequently infringed. It was by a breach of discipline that Ulrich was the
first socialist to enter the Hessian chamber, for he came forward as a
candidate although his party had forbidden any socialist participation in
th,e elections which were effected by a system of indirect suffrage. In many
instances the socialists of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden openly disre-
garded the decisions of the congresses forbiding alliances with the liberals
or with the clericals, and in the various diets they often voted the budget
although the national congresses had expressly ordained that no support
was ever to be given to any ministry. The central executive of the party
has also frequently disregarded the decisions of the congresses. For ex-
ample, this was done in the second ballots for the Eeichstag in 1903, when
the executive committee decreed that the votes of the socialists might be
given to any one who was opposed to restriction of the suffrage, thus violat-
ing the resolution of the Munich congress of 1902, which laid down that
support at the second ballot given to a bourgeois candidate of the left who
was running in opposition to a candidate of the right must depend not
only on the candidate's attitude to the question of universal suffrage but
also upon his declared opposition to an imperialist colonial policy. Similarly,
again, after the congress of Jena (1903), the executive (in accord with the
general committee of the trade-union organizations) effected profound
modifications in the decision taken at Jena concerning the general strike. In
Italy, at the socialist congress of Florence in 1896, it was decreed that no
member of the party should under any circumstances fight a duel (ef.
Alfredo Angiolini, Cinquant ' Anni di Socialismo in Italia, Nerbini, Florence,
1904, 2nd ed., p. 346). Notwithstanding this, every year some half dozen of
the most conspicuous leaders of the party have sent or accepted challenges.
Again, the various votes against freemasonry have had no effect what-
ever, the socialist freemasons remaining in the party and in their lodges.
Even in Germany, where discipline is professedly far more strict, the pro-
cedure is extremely lax when authoritative comrades are accused of having
transgressed the laws of the party. Thus the parliamentary socialist group
of the Grand Duchy of Baden ignoring the decision of the previous national
congress of Nuremberg, participated in a vote of confidence in the govern-
ment (1910). On this occasion the party executive, by failing to censure the
group for its action, rendered itself an accessory after the fact. Often

INTERNAL CONFLICT 161

more general of discussing en petit comite questions of the great-
est importance, and of confronting the party subsequently with
accomplished facts (for example, electoral congresses are not
summoned until after the elections, so that the leaders decide on
their sole responsibility what is to be the electoral platform).
Again, there are secret negotiations among different groups of
leaders (as happened in Germany in the case of the 1st of May
demonstration and in that of the general strike), and secret un-
derstandings with the government. Once more, silence is often
maintained by the members of the parliamentary group upon
matters which have been discussed by the group and upon deci-
sions at which they have arrived, and this practice is censured by
members of the executive only when they themselves are kept in
the dark, but is approved by them when it is merely the masses
who are hoodwinked.

There is no indication whatever that the power possessed by j
the oligarchy in party life is likely to be overthrown within an
appreciable time. The independence of the leaders increases con-
currently with their indispensability. Nay more, the influence
which they exercise and the financial security of their position
become more and more fascinating to the masses, stimulating
the ambition of all the more talented elements to enter the privi-
leged bureaucracy of the labour movement. Thus the rank and
file becomes continually more impotent to provide new and intel-
ligent forces capable of leading the opposition which may be la-
tent among the masses.^" Even to-day the masses rarely move ex-
enough the leaders actually pride themselves on their disregard of the most
elementary principles of democracy. When the socialist group of the
Badenese chamber was reproached for having voted the budget, in defiance
of the rule established at the Nuremberg congress of 1908, the deputy
Ludwig Frank declared: "It would go ill with the party if it lacked
men with the courage to ignore congress resolutions when these are al-
together impracticable" (reported in the " Volksstimme, " Frankfort, anno
xxi, No. 168). No one can fail to see that this explanation is invalid. It
may well happen that certain resolutions adopted by the congresses are
inopportune, and may be so inopportune that to carry them out would
be an act of madness, or would at least involve serious harm to the party.
But this would merely signify that the delegates responsible for passing such
impossibilist resolutions were characterized by great political immaturity.
He who will not admit this must at least recognize that the frequent in-
fringement by the leaders of the determinations of the party congresses |
constitutes a grave lack of democratic sentiment and discipline. Tertium ■
non datur.

"Thus Pareto writes: "Si les B [nouvelle elite] prennent pen a peu la
place des A [ancienne elite] par une lente infiltration, et si le mouve-

162 POLITICAL PARTIES

eept at tlie command of their leaders. When the rank and file
does take action in conflict with the wishes of the chiefs, this
is almost always the outcome of a misunderstanding. The
miners' strike in the Ruhr basin in 1905 broke out against the
desire of the trade-union leaders, and was generally regarded as
a spontaneous explosion of the popular will. But it was sub-
sequently proved beyond dispute that for many months the lead-
ers had been stimulating the rank and file, mobilizing them
against the coal barons with repeated threats of a strike, so that
the mass of the workers, when they entered on the struggle,
could not possibly fail to believe that they did so with the full
approval of their ehiefs.^^

It cannot be denied that the masses revolt from time to time,
but their revolts are always suppressed. It is only when the
dominant classes, struck by sudden blindness, pursue a policy
which strains social relationships to the breaking-point, that the
party masses appear actively on the stage of history and over-
throw the power of the oligarchies. Every autonomous move-
ment of the masses signifies a profound discordance with the will
of the leaders.^^ Apart from such transient interruptions, the

ment de circulation sociale n 'est pas interrompu, les C [la masse] sont privea
des chefs qui pourraient les pousser a la revolte" (Vilfredo Pareto, Les
Systemes socialistes, ed. cit., vol. i, p. 35).

^ Cf . p. 158, note 6.

" The outbreak of the great railway strike in England in August 1911
has been considered by some to have been such a victory on the part of the
masses over their leaders. Those who take this view contend that this
strike was a sudden transition from the "sluggish and pacific" tactics of
the trade unions, whose funds are ample and the "respectability" of
whose leaders is indisputable, to a vigorous and revolutionary policy; this
change of tactics they suppose to have been due to the impatience of the
crowd, rebelling simultaneously against the yoke of the railway companies
and that of their own officials. But those who hold such a view have not
given due weight to the most conspicuous characteristics of the movement.
If ever a strike was conducted by tried and powerful leaders, it was thia
one. The supreme command of the forces of the "northern army" of the
strikers (at the Liverpool headquarters) was in the hands of Tom Mann,
one of the boldest and most energetic figures of the modern labour move-
ment, a man who in London in 1889 was one of the leaders of the dockers
in their famous and successful strike, and who subsequently, inspired by the
sentiment of the class struggle, was an organizer of socialism in Australia.
Nay more, the aims of the strike were such that the trade-union leaders
were profoundly interested in its success. Not only was their amour propre
involved, but it was a question of giving a more solid foundation to the
economic organization of the workers. If we are to understand the sociology
of the English railway strike of 1911, we must not forget that the com-

INTERNAL CONFLICT 163

natural and normal development of the organization will im-
press upon the most revolutionary of parties an indelible stamp
of conservatism.

panies were unwilling to meet the representatives of the labour organization
and to negotiate with these. But the Amalgamated Society of Eailway
Servants had unanimously resolved "to give twenty-four hours to the com-
panies to make up their minds that they would at once meet the representa-
tives of the trade unions in order to discuss a basis of agreement." Thus
the question was one of recognition of the working-class leaders by the
employers' organizations, which amounts to saying that it was one touching
the personal interest of the employees of the trade unions. Accounts of
the strike written from very various points of view suffice to establish
this. Cf., for instance, that of the syndicalist James Barrison in the
" Internazionale " of Parma (anno v, No. IS), and that published by the
central organ of the Catholic trade unionists of Germany, the ' ' Centralblatt
der Christlichen Gewerkschaften Deutschlands" (si, No. 19).

CHAPTER VI

THE STRUGGLE AMONG THE LEADERS THEMSELVES

The thesis of the unlimited power of the leaders in democratic
parties requires, however, a certain limitation. Theoretically the
leader is bound by the will of the mass, which has only to give a
sign and the leader is forced to withdraw. He can be discharged
and replaced at any moment. But in practice, as we have
learned, for various reasons the leaders enjoy a high degree of
independence. It is none the less true that if the democratic
party cannot dispense with autocratic leaders, it is at least able
to change these. Consequently the most dangerous defect in a
leader is that he should possess too blind a confidence in the
masses. The aristocratic leader is more secure than the demo-
cratic against surprises at the hands of the rank and file. It is
an essential characteristic of democracy that every private car-
ries a marshal 's baton in his knapsack. It is true that the mass
is always incapable of governing ; but it is no less true that each
individual in the mass, in so far as he possesses, for good or for
ill, the qualities which are requisite to enable him to rise above
the crowdj can attain to the grade of leader and become a ruler.
Now this ascent of new leaders always involves the danger, for
those who are already in possession of power, that they will be
(tf forced to surrender their places to the new-comers. The old
leader must therefore keep himself in permanent touch with the
opinions and feelings of the masses to which he owes his position.
Formally, at least, he must act in unison with the crowd, must
admit himself to be the instrument of the crowd, must be guided,
in appearance at least, by its goodwill and pleasure. Thus it
often seems as if the mass really controlled the leaders. But
whenever the power of the leaders is seriously threatened, it is
in most eases because a new leader or a new group of leaders
is on the point of becoming dominant;, and is inculcating views
opposed to those of the old rulers of the party. It then seems as
if the old leaders, unless they are willing to yield to the opinion
of the rank and file and to withdraw, must consent to share their
power with the new arrivals. If, however, we look more closely

164

STRUGGLE AJMONG THE LEADERS 165

into the matter, it is not difficult to see that their submission is
in most cases no more than an act of foresight intended to ob-
viate the influence of their younger rivals. The submission of
the old leaders is ostensibly an act of homage to the crowd, but
in intention it is a means of prophylaxis against the peril by
which they are threatened — the formation of a new elite.

The semblance of obedience to the mass which is exhibited by
the leaders assumes, in the case of the feebler and the more cun-
ning among them, the form of demagogy. Demagogues are the
courtesans of the popular will. Instead of raising the masses to
their own level, they debase themselves to the level of the masses.
Even for the most honest among them, the secret of success con-
sists in "knowing how to turn the blind impulsiveness of the
crowd to the service of their own ripely pondered plans. ' ' ^ The
stronger leaders brave the tempest, well-knowing that their power
may be attacked, but cannot be broken. The weak or the base, on
the other hand, give ground when the masses make a vigorous on-
slaught ; their dominion is temporarily impaired or interrupted.
But their submission is feigned ; they are well aware that if they
simply remain glued to their posts, their quality as executants
of the will of the masses will before long lead to a restoration of
their former dominance. One of the most noted leaders of Ger-
man socialism said in a critical period of tension between the
leaders and the masses, that he must follow the will of the masses
in order to guide them.^ A profound psychological truth is hid-
den in this sarcasm. He who wishes to command must know how
to obey.

It has been affirmed that popular revolutions usually end by
destroying their leaders. In proof there have been quoted the
names of Rienzi, Masaniello, and Michele di Lando, for Italy, and
of Danton and Robespierre, for France. For these and many
similar instances the observation is a true one. It would, how-
ever, be an error to accuse the crowd of rising against its lead-
ers, and to make the masses responsible for their fall. It is not
the masses which have devoured the leaders : the chiefs have de-
voured one another with the aid of the masses. Typical examples
are that of Danton, who was overthrown by Robespierre, and that
of Robespierre, who was destroyed by the surviving Dantonists.

* Kochanowski, UrseitJcldnge, etc., ed. cit., p. 10.

=" ' Ich bin ihr Fuhrer, also muss ich ihnen f olgen. ' ' (Cf . Adolf Weber,
Ber Kampf swischen Kapital u. Arbeit, ed. cit., p. 369.)

166 POLITICAL PARTIES

The struggle which arises between the leaders, and their mu-
tual jealousies, induce them to employ active measures and often
to have recourse to artifices.^ Democratic deputies endeavour to
disarm their adversaries within the party, and at the same time
to acquire a new prestige in the eyes of the masses, by displaying
in parliament "a formidable activity on behalf of the common
cause." This is regarded at once as a democratic duty and as a
measure of personal precaution. Since the great majority of
the deputies, electors, and comrades have no precise ideas con-
cerning the functions he exercises, and are continually inclined
to accuse him of slackness, the deputy is from time to time forced
to recall himself to their memories.* It is this need which has
given rise to not a few of those speeches to which the Germans
give the name of Dauerreden (interminable speeches), and it
has also been the cause of more than one "scene" in the various
parliaments of Austria, France, England, and Italy. It is, in
fact, held that the most efficacious means for retaining the atten-
tion of the masses and of rendering them proud of their leaders
is to be found in the provocation of those personal incidents
which are far more interesting to the great public and far more
within the scope of its intelligence than a report upon the utiliza-
tion of water power or upon a commercial treaty with the repub-
lic of Argentina. Moreover, it has to be remembered that in
many countries, and above all in Italy, such scenes are recorded
in the capitalist press with the greatest abundance of detail,
whilst serious speeches are summed up in a few lines, and with
especial brevity when the speaker is a socialist. Thus even in
normal times the oratorical activity of the parliamentary repre-
sentatives of the democratic parties is considerable. In Italy,
the socialist deputies have boasted that between March 25 and
July 10, 1909, they spoke in the Chamber 212 times. The figure
represents 20.4 per cent, of all the speeches made in parliament
during the period, whilst the socialist deputies at this time con-
stituted only 8 per cent, of the members.^ Such loquacity serves
not merely to maintain the prestige of the party in the eyes of

• Concerning the varied character and the intensity of such activities, the
socialist deputy Guide Podreeca has written a charmingly humorous sketch
entitled The Joys of a Deputy (Le Gioie del Deputato, "Avanti," anno xiv,
No. 44, Eome, 1910).

*Cf. Pio Viazzi, Le Gioie della Deputasione, "Eivista Populare," anno
XV, No. 11.

' Cf. the account given by Oddino Morgari, " Avanti," August 12, 1909.

rivalry; of leaders ler

its opponents, but is also a matter of personal interest to each
deputy, being a means to secure bis re-election in competition,
not only with enemies in other parties, but also with jealous
rivals belonging to his own organization.

The differences which lead to struggles between the leaders
arise in various ways. Reference has previously been made to
the inevitable antagonism between the "great men" who have
acquired a reputation in other fields, and who now make adhesion
to the party, offering it their services as generals, and the old-
established leaders, who have been socialists from the firsts®
Often conflict arises simply between age and youth. Sometimes
the struggle depends upon diversity of social origin, as when
there is a contest between proletarian leaders and those of bour-
geois birth,', Sometimes the difference arises from the objective
needs of the various branches of activity into which a single
movement is subdivided, as when there is a struggle between the
political socialist party and the trade-union element, or within
the political party between the parliamentary group and the
executive. In some cases there is a horizontal stratification, caus-
ing a struggle between one stratum of the bureaucracy and an-
other ; at other times the stratification is vertical, as when there
occurs a conflict between two local or national groups of leaders ;
between the Bavarian socialists and the Prussian ; between those
of Frankfort and those of Hanau ; between the French followers
of Vaillant, Jaures, and Herve, and the German adherents of
Bebel and von VoUmar (in the anti-militarist discussion at the
international congress of Stuttgart). Often enough struggles
among the socialists are the outcome of racial differences. The
unceasing contests in the international congresses between the
German socialists and the French afford in more than one re-
spect a parallel with the Franco-German War of 1870. In these
same congresses there participates a third group, misunderstood
and heterogeneous, the representatives of English socialism, hos-
tile to all the others and encountering the enmity of all. In
most cases, however, the differences between the various groups
of leaders depend upon two other categories of motives. Above
all there are objective differences and differences of principle in
general philosophical views, or at least in the mode in which the
proximate social evolution is conceived, and consequent diver-

'Cf. pp. 74-5.

^ A special chapter (Part IV, chap, vi) will be devoted to this question.

168 POLITICAL PARTIES

gences of opinion as to the most desirable tactics: this leads to
the manifestation of the various tendencies known as reformist
and Marxist, syndicalist and political socialist, and so on. In
the second place, we have the struggles that depend on personal
reasons: antipathy, envy, jealousy, a reckless attempt to grasp
the first positions, demagogy. Enrico Ferri said of his opponent
Filippo Turati: ''He hates me because he thinks there is not
room for two cocks in the same fowl-house. " ^ In most cases the
two series of motives are somewhat confounded in practice ; and
in the long run we find that those of the former series tend to be
replaced by those of the latter, inasmuch as differences of prin-
ciple and of the intellectual order soon become personal and lead
to a profound hostility between the representatives of the various
theories. Conversely it is clear that motives of the second series,
since those who are influenced by them are ashamed to display
them in their true colours, always endeavour to assume the
mantle of theory; personal dislike and personal hostility pom-
pously masquerade as differences of views and tactics.

The oligarchy which issues from democracy is menaced by two
grave dangers: the revolt of the masses, and (in intimate rela-
tionship with this revolt, of which it is often the result) the
transition to a dictatorship when one among the oligarchs suc-
ceeds in obtaining supreme power. Of these two dangers, one
comes from below, whilst the other arises within the very bosom
of the oligarchy: we have rebellion on one side, and usurpation
Of on the other. The consequence is that in all modern popular
parties a spirit of genuine fraternity is conspicuously lacking;
we do not see sincere and cordial mutual trust; there is a con-
tinual latent struggle, a spirit of irritation determined by the
reciprocal mistrust of the leaders, and this spirit has become one
of the most essential characteristics of every democracy. ' The
mistrust of the leaders is directed above all against those who
aspire to command their own organizations. Every oligarchy is
full of suspicion towards those who aspire to enter its ranks,
regarding them not simply as eventual heirs but as successors
who are ready to supplant them without waiting for a natural
death. Those who have long been in possession (and this applies
just as much to spiritual and psychical possession as to mate-
rial) are proud of their past, and are therefore inclined to look

® Speech made by Ferri at Suzzara, reported in "Stampa," anno xlvii,
No. 358 (December 27, 1909).

STRUGGLE AMONG THE LEADERS 169

down upon those whose ownership is of more recent date. In
certain Sicilian towns, struggles go on between two parties who
in popular phrase are ironically termed i ricchi and gli arricchiti
(the wealthy and those who have attained to wealth). The
former consists of the old landed gentry; whilst the latter, the
parvenus, are merchants, contractors for public works, manu-
facturers, and the like.^ A similar struggle makes its appear-
ance in modern democratic parties, although it is not in this case
characterized by any flavour of economic distinction. Here also
we have a struggle between the detenteurs d'emploi et les cher-
cheiirs d'emploi, or as the Americans put it, between the "ins"
and the "outs." The latter declare war on the former, osten-
sibly on the ground of eternal principle, but in reality, in most
cases, because in such opposition they find the most effective
means of forcing their way into the circle of the chiefs. Conse-
quently in meetings they display themselves as implacable the-
oretical adversaries, "talking big" solely in order to intimidate
the accepted leaders, and in order to induce them to surrender a
share of the spoil to these turbulent comrades. Often enough,
the old leaders resist, and maintain their ground firmly ; in such
cases their opponents, changing front, abandon the attitude of
struggle, and attach themselves to the triumphal car of the men
in power, hoping thus to attract favour, and, by a different route,
to realize their own ambitions.^"

The struggle between the old leaders and the aspirants to
power constitutes a perpetual menace to freedom of speech and
thought. "We encounter this menace in every democratic organ-
ization in so far as it is well ordered and solidly grounded, and
in so far as it is operating in the field of party politics (for in
the wider life of the state, in which the various parties are in
continual reciprocal concussion, it is necessary to leave intact a
certain liberty of movement) .^^ The leaders, those who already
hold the power of the party in their hands, make no conceal-

' Giacomo Montalto, La Questione sociale e il Partito socialista, Soeieta
Editriee Lombarda, Milan 1895, p. 81. — The description of the landed
gentry as "the rich" is a striking confirmation of the truth of Sombart's
view, that, in the case of a hereditarily gentle class, wealth is a natural
attribute, psychologically and socially congenital, qualitative rather than
quantitative (cf. Sombart, Die deutsche Volkswirtschaft, etc., ed. cit., p.
542).

" Ostrogorsky, Organisation de la Demoeratie, ed. cit., vol. ii, pp. 203,
206, and 363.

" ' ' Experience shows only too clearly that, wherever democracy is tending

170 POLITICAL PARTIES

ment of their natural inclination to control as strictly as pos-
sible the freedom of speech of those of their colleagues from
whom they differ.

The consequence is that those in office are great zealots for
discipline and subordination, declaring that these qualities are
indispensable to the very existence of the party. They go so
far as to exercise a censorship over any of their colleagues
whom they suspect of rebellious inclinations, forcing them to
abandon independent journals, and to publish all their
articles in the official organs controlled by the leaders of
the majority in the party. The prohibition, in the German
socialist partj^, of collaboration on the part of its members with
the capitalist press, is in part due to the same tendency ; whilst
the demand that the comrades should have nothing to do with
periodicals which, though socialist, are founded with private cap-
ital and are not subject to the official control of the party exec-
utive, arises solely from this suspicion on the part of the leaders.^^
In the struggle against the young aspirants, the old leader can
as a rule count securely upon the support of the masses. The
rank and file of the working-class parties have a certain natural
■. distrust of all new-comers who have not been openly protected
or introduced into the party by old comrades ; and this is above
all the case when the new-comer is derived from another social
class. Thus the new recruit, before he can come into the open
with his new ideas, must submit, if he is not to be exposed to
the most violent attacks, to a long period of quarantine. In the
German socialist party, this period of quarantine is especially
protracted, for the reason that the German party has been longer
established than any of the others, and because its leaders there-
fore enjoy an exceptional prestige. Many of them were among
the actual founders of the party, and their personalities have
been consecrated by the baptism of fire which they suffered dur-
ing the enforcement of the anti-socialist laws. A socialist who
has had his party card in his pocket for eight or ten years is
often regarded in his branch as a "young" member. This ten-
dency is reinforced by the respect for age which is so strong
among the Germans, and by the tendency towards hierarchy of

to degenerate, freedom of speech and the press are the first to perish"
(Eoscher, PolitiTc, ed. cit., p. 324).

^^Cf. the discussions of the congresses of the German socialist party at
Munich (FrotoJcoll, pp. 255 et seq.) and at Dresden (ProtoJcoll, pp. 158
i et seq.)

rivalry; or: leaders 171

which even the democracy has not been able to divest itself.
Finally, it may be added that the bureaucracy of the German
labour movement, like every strongly developed bureaucracy,
tends instinctively towards exclusivism. Consequently in the
German social democracy, in contradistinction to other socialist
parties which are less solidly organized, we find that not merely
the recently enrolled member of the party (the so-called Fuchs),
but also the ordinary member who does not live in the service
and by the service of the party but has preserved his outward
independence as a private author or in some other capacity, and
has therefore not been incorporated among the cogwheels of
the party machine, very rarely succeeds in making his influence
felt. There can be no doubt that this fact plays a large part in
the causation of that lack of a number of capable young men,
displaying fresh energies, and not greatly inferior to the old
leaders, a lack which has often been deplored. The annual con-
gresses of the socialist party have even been spoken of as "con-
gresses of the party officials." The criticism is not unjust, for
among the delegates to the socialist congresses the percentage of
party and trade-union officials is enormous.^^ It is above all in
the superior grades of the organization that the tendencies we
are here analysing are especially conspicuous. In Germany, the
management of the socialist party is not entrusted to young men,
as often happens in Italy, or to free publicists, as in France, but
to old members, des anciens, elderly officials of the party. More-
over, the conservative psychology of the masses supports the as-
pirations of the old leaders, for it would never occur to the rank
and file to entrust the care of their interests to persons belong-
ing to their own proper sphere, that is to say, to those who have
no official position in the party and who have not pursued a
regular bureaucratic career.^*

Often the struggle between the old leaders in possession of
power and the new aspirants assumes the aspects of a struggle

"Cf. pp. 120, 127.

"In Frankfort- Nordend the list proposed for the election of delegates
to the congress of Nuremberg, 1908, drawn up in accordance with the
express wishes of the district assemblies of the party, contained, among
eleven names, those of eight officials of the labour movement (two socialist
journalists, one party secretary, one secretary of trades council, one organ-
izer, one trade-union employee, one insurance-bureau employee, and one
cooperative salesman) as compared with three simple wage-earners who were
not dependent upon working-class organizations (Frankfort " Volksstimme, "
Supplement 188, 1908).

172 POLITICAL PARTIES

between responsible and irresponsible persons.^^ Many criti-
cisms levelled by the latter against the former are beside the
mark, because the leaders have grave responsibilities from which
the aspirants are free. This freedom gives the aspirants a tacti-
cal advantage in their conflict with the old leaders. Moreover,
precisely because they are irresponsible, because they do not
occupy any official position in the party, the opponents are not
subject to that simulacrum of democratic control which must in-
fluence the conduct of those in office.

In order to combat the new chiefs, who are still in a minority,
the old leaders of the majority instinctively avail themselves of a
series of underhand methods through which they often secure
victory, or at least notably retard defeat. Among these means,
there is one which will have to be more fully discussed in an-
other connection. The leaders of what we may term the ''gov-
ernment ' ' arouse in the minds of the masses distrust of the lead-
ers of the ' ' opposition ' ' by labelling them incompetent and pro-
fane, terming them spouters, corrupters of the party, dema-
gogues, and humbugs, whilst in the name of the mass and of
democracy they describe themselves as exponents of the collec-
tive will, and demand the submission of the insubordinate and
even of the merely discontented comrades.

In the struggle among the leaders an appeal is often made to
loftier motives. When the members of the executive claim the
right to intervene in the democratic functions of the individual
sections of the organization, they base this claim upon their
more comprehensive grasp of all the circumstances of the case,
their profounder insight, their superior socialist culture and
keener socialist sentiment. They often claim the right of refus-
ing to accept the new elements which the inexpert and ignorant
masses desire to associate with them in the leadership, basing
their refusal on the ground that it is necessary to sustain the
moral and theoretical level of the party. The revolutionary so-
cialists of Germany demand the maintenance of the centralized
power of the executive committee as a means of defence against
the dangers, which would otherwise become inevitable as the

*" In socialist and trade-union literature this aspect of the problem has
often been discussed. Cf. Filippo Turati, II Partito socialista e Vattuale
Momenta politico, Uffici della "Critiea Sociale, " Milan, 1901, 3rd ed.,
p. 19; Paul Kampffmeyer, Die Entwicklung der deutschen Gewerlcschaften,
"Annalen fiir Soziale Politik und Gesetzgebung, " vol. i, fase. 1, pp. 114
et seq.

RIVALRY OF LEADERS 173

party grows, of the predominant influence of new and theoreti-
cally untrustworthy elements. The old leaders, it is said, must
control the masses, lest these should force undesirable colleagues
upon them. Hence they claim that the constituencies must not
nominate parliamentary candidates without the previous ap-
proval of the party executive.^®

"Kautsky defends this claim. "The greater the increase in our voting
strength, the greater the dearth of candidates, the more remote from the
great centres of economic, political, and intellectual life are many con-
stituencies with socialist majorities, the more essential does it become that
the party organizations in the individual constituencies should not possess
absolute sovereignty in the choice of candidates, but that the right of selec-
tion should be vested in the party as a -whole. The best way of securing
this is that in the case of candidates for the diet the constituencies should
secure the approval of the territorial executive or territorial congress, and
in the case of candidates for the Eeiehstag that of the territorial executive
and of the central executive. In 1876 the party congress decided the various
candidatures to the Eeiehstag, in so far as time permitted. But in the case
of a number of candidatures it was necessary that the selection should
be entrusted to the electoral committee appointed by the congress. It is
obvious that there are several different ways in which the party as a whole
may exercise a determinative influence in the choice of candidates. Which
of these ways is the most practical need not here be discussed. The
point of immediate importance is to recognize, in principle, that the selection
of a candidate for the Eeiehstag is a matter which concerns the party
as a whole quite as much as it concerns the individual constituency." The
expression "the party as a whole" is naturally to be understood as synony-
mous with "the party executive." Kautsky continues: "Of course the
choice of candidates must not be exclusively in the hands of the party
executive or of a central electoral committee. The comrades in the con-
stituencies have to shoulder most of the electoral work and it is upon
them that success in the election mainly depends. It would certainly be
preposterous to force upon them a candidate whom they did not want. But
on the other hand the constituency must not have the right to force upon
the party a parliamentary representative whom the majority in the party
has serious reasons to dislike. The local organizations must choose their
own candidates in the first instance. But the candidatures must always be
approved by the party as a whole. ... It may, indeed, sometimes be de-
sirable that the party, or its executive, should itself nominate the candidate.
This will be the case especially in those states in which the number of safe
constituencies is extremely small. Here the selection of candidates must
not be left solely to the play of local influences. The party has a right
to demand that in the safe constituencies those candidates shall be run
whose presence in parliament is absolutely indispensable. It is owing to
the unrestricted autonomy of the constituencies that in Austria such a man
as Victor Adler has been excluded from the house of representatives for
two parliaments in succession, and it is doubtful if he will secure a seat
at the forthcoming elections. But as far as the German Empire is con-
cerned, the number of safe constituencies is so large, that these considera-

174 POLITICAL PARTIES

The old leaders always endeavour to harness to their own
chariot the forces of those new movements which have not yet
found powerful leaders, so as to obviate from the first all com-
petition and all possibility of the formation of new and vigorous
intellectual currents. In Germany, the leaders of the socialist
party and the trade-union leaders at first looked askance at the
Young Socialist movement. When, however, they perceived that
this movement could not be suppressed, they hastened to place
themselves at its head. There was founded for the guidance of
the socialist youth a ''Central Committee of Young German
Workers," comprising four representatives from each of the
th^ee parties, that is to say, four from the executive of the social-
ist party, four from the general committee of trade unions, and
four from the Young Socialists (the representatives of the lat-
ter being thus outnumbered by two to one).^^ The old leaders
endeavour to justify the tutelage thus imposed on the Young
Socialists by alleging (with more opportunist zeal than logical
acuteness) the incapacity of the youthful masses, if left to their
own guidance, of wisely choosing their own leaders and of exer-
cising over these an efficient control.^^

We have by no means come to an end of our enumeration of
the weapons at the disposal of the old leaders in their conflict
with the new aspirants to power. Charlemagne effected the final
subjugation of the Saxon tribal chiefs by making them counts.
In this way he not only increased the brilliancy of their position,
but also gave them a restricted share in his own power. This
means has been practised again and again in history, where an
old ruler has wished to render harmless, insubordinate but influ-
ential chiefs, and thus to prevent a rebellion against his own
authority. Oligarchies employ this stratagem with just as much
success as monarchies. The feudal state of Prussia appointed to
the privy council the most defiant among the leaders of its bour-
geoisie. At a time when the youthful German bourgeoisie was
still filled with a rebellious spirit towards the nobility and to-
wards the traditional authority of the state, this tendency aroused

tions hardly apply" (Karl Kautsky, WaMkreis und Partei, "Neuo Zeit,"
xxii. No. 28, p. 36).

""Frankisehe Tagespost," anno xxxix, No. 191, Supplement 2.

18 ( I rpjjg associations of the Young Socialists are impotent vis-a-via their
leaders, lacking the force and adroitness which would enable them to
avoid the arbitrary rule of these" (Max Kette, Die Jugendbewegung,
"Neue Zeit," xxviii. No. 9).

STRUGGLE AMONG THE LEADERS 175

much bitterness. Thus Ludwig Borne wrote in 1830: "Wher-
ever a talented force of opposition has made itself apparent and
has secured respect from those in authority, it is chained to the
professorial chair, or is controlled by being harnessed to the gov-
ernment. If the governmental ranks are full, so that no place
can be found for the new energies, a state livery is at least pro-
vided for the authors by giving them titles and orders. In other
eases the dangerous elements are isolated from the people by
immuring them in some noble's castle or princely court. It is
for this reason that nowhere else do we find so many privy coun-
cillors as in Germany, where the courts are least inclined to take
any one's advice." ^^ In the Spanish elections of 1875, we learn
that so great was the popular indifference that the government
had matters altogether in its own hands, but in order to be se-
cure in any event it thoughtfully selected a certain number of
opposition candidates.-" It seems that things are much the same
in Spain even to-day.^^ These tactics are not confined to states
that are still permeated by feudal conceptions. Where pluto-
cratic rule is supreme, corruption persists unchanged, and it is
only the corrupter who is different. This is plainly shown by
Austin Lewis when he writes: "The public ownership contin-
gent in politics being composed of the middle and subjugated
class have neither the political ability nor the vital energy nec-
essary for the accomplishment of the task which they have under-
taken. The brains of the smaller middle class have already been
bought by the greater capitalists. Talent employed in the serv-
ice of the chiefs of industry and finance can command better
prices than can be obtained in the uncertain struggle for eco-
nomic standing which members of the middle class have to wage.
The road to professional and political preferment lies through
the preserves of the ruling oligarchy, whose wardens allow no
one to pass, save servants in livery. Every material ambition of
youth is to be gratified in the service of the oligarchy, which
shows, generally, an astuteness in the selection of talent that
would do credit to a bureaucrat or a Jesuit.^^

Of late years the ruling classes in the countries under a demo-

^'■'Ludwig Borne, Aus meinem Tageiuche, Eeelam, Leipzig, p. 57.

^'' Denkwiirdiglceiten des Fursten Eohenlohe, ed. cit., p. 376.

'^Nicolas Salmeron y Garcia, L'etat espagnol et la Solidarite catalane,
**Le Courier Europeen, " iv. No. 23.

=- Austin Lewis, The Rise of the American Proletarian, Charles H. Kerr
& Co., Chicago, 1907, pp. 189-190.

176 POLITICAL PARTIES

cratie regime have hoped to impose obstacles in the way of the
revolutionary labour movement by conceding posts in the min-
istry to its most conspicuous leaders, thus gaining control over
the revolutionary impulse of the proletariat by allowing its lead-
ers to participate in power, though cautiously and in an ex-
tremely restricted measure. The oligarchy which controls the
modern democratic party has often employed the same means
to tame the opposition. If the leaders of the opposition within
the party are dangerous because they have a large following
among the masses, and if they are at the same time few in num-
ber, the old party-leaders endeavour to hold them in check and
to neutralize their influence by the conciliatory methods just de-
scribed. The leaders of the opposition receive high offices and
honours in the party, and are thus rendered innocuous — all the
more so seeing that they are not admitted to the supreme offices,
but are relegated to posts of the second rank which give them
no notable influence, and they are without hope of one day be-
coming a majority. On the other hand, they divide with their
ancient adversaries the serious weight of responsibility which is
generated by common deliberations and manifestations, so that
their activities become confounded with those of the old leaders.^^
In order to avoid having to divide their power with new ele-

^^ The history of the socialist party alike in Austria and in Germany
affords niimerous examples of minorities which were at first pugnacious and
rebellious, but which have allowed themselves to be disarmed in this man-
ner. The leaders of the opposition to the party executive at the Salzburg
congress of the Austrian socialists in 1904, and also those at the Bremen
congress of the German socialists held in the same year, have since then
become members of the superior order of leaders and have been elected
deputies to the parliaments of their respective countries. Simultaneously
they have abandoned their attitude of opposition. The most typical ex-
ample, however, occurred among the Dutch socialists in the spring of
1909. Here the reformist majority endeavoured to gain control of
the party executive through the criticism which was levelled against the re-
formists by some of the particularly hardy members of the opposition.
These latter, the so-called Marxist group of the "Niewe Tijd, " had their
own organ, an independent and private review; now the reformist leaders
of the party proposed to create a joint review, edited by the party and
therefore subject to the control of the party, on condition that the Marxists
should renounce the "Niewe Tijd. " This was an extremely ingenious
scheme for drawing their opponents' teeth. The democratic parties in
America exhibit analogous phenomena. Ostrogorsky writes: "La machine
est prete a tout faire, meme a faire aux recalcitrants une place sur le
tiquet" (Ostrogorsky, Organisation de la Democratie, etc., ed. cit., vol. ii, p.
363).

RIVALRY OF LEADERS 177

ments, especially such as are uncongenial by tendency or mental
characteristics, the old leaders tend everywhere with greater or
less success to acquire the right of choosing their own colleagues,
thus depriving the masses of the privilege of appointing the
leaders they themselves prefer.-*

The path of the new aspirants to power is always beset with
difficulties, bestrewn with obstacles of all kinds, which can be
overcome only by the favour of the mass. Yery rarely does the
struggle between the old leaders and the new end in the com-
plete defeat of the former. The result of the process is not so
much a circidation des elites as a reunion des elites, an amalgam,
that is to say, of the two elements. Those representing the new
tendency, as long as their footing is still insecure, seek all sorts
of side paths in order to avoid being overthro\\Ti by the powers-
that-be. They protest that their divergence from the views of
the majority is trifling, contending that they are merely the
logical advocates of the ancient and tried principles of the party,
and express their regret that the old leaders display a lack of
true democratic feeling. Not infrequently it happens that they
avert the blows directed against them by craftily creeping be-
hind the backs of their established and powerful opponents who
are about to annihilate them, solemnly declaring, when wrathful
blows are directed against them, that they are in complete ac-
cord with the old leaders and approve of all their actions, so
that the leaders seem to be beating the air. On many occasions
in the recent history of the socialist parties, the reformist minor-
ities, in order to avoid destruction, have bowed themselves be-
neath the yoke of the so-called revolutionary majorities by voting
(with a fine practical and tactical sense, but with an entire lack
of personal pride and political loyalty) resolutions which were
drafted precisely in order to condemn the political views dear to
the minority.^^ In two cases only does it sometimes happen that

"The reader's attention may be recalled to what has been said on pp.
103, 104.

" At the Dresden congress, 1903, the German reformists found no difficulty
in voting for the so-called "Dresden resolution," which subsequently at-
tained an international status, having been brought forward by the French
Marxists at the international congress of Amsterdam, 1904, where it was
solemnly reconfirmed. It is indisputable that this motion was directed
against the reformists, since it erpressly condemns all participation by
socialists in the government. Eleven only among the 268 reformist delegates
had a sense of duty and political honesty or personal rectitude sufficiently
Strong to induce them to vote against the resolution. (Cf. the remarks on

178 POLITICAL PARTIES

the relationships between the two tendencies become strained to
the breaking-point. In the first place this may happen when the
leaders of one of the two factions possess a profound faith in
their own ideas, and are characterized at once by tactical fanati-
cism and theoretical irreconcilability — or, in other words, when
the objective reasons which divide them from their opponents are
felt with an unaccustomed force and are professed with an un-
wonted sincerity. In the second place it may happen when one of
the parties, in consequence of offended dignity or reasonable sus-
ceptibility, finds it psychologically impossible to continue to live
with the other, and to carry on within the confines of the same
association a continued struggle for dominion over the masses.
The party will then break up into two distinct organisms, and
in each of these there will be renewed the oligarchical phenomena
we have been describing.

One of the most interesting chapters in the history of the strug-
gles between leaders deals with the measures which these leaders
adopt within their own closed corporations in order to maintain
discipline — that is to say, in order to preserve the cementing
force of the will of the majority. In the struggle which the va-
rious groups of leaders carry on for the hegemony of the party,
the concept of democracy becomes a lure which all alike employ.

this matter of Lily Braun, Memoiren einer SosialisUn. KampfjaJire,
Langen, Munich, 1911, p. 512). The Austrian socialist, Victor Adler, whose
views are most closely akin to the reformists of the German party, wrote
in the Viennese "Arbeiter Zeitung" concerning the stratagem adopted by
the majority of the reformists: "Secondly, the vote means that those
who are termed reformists regard the moment as unfavourable for the
decisive and open declaration of their opinions and still more unfavourable
for the display of the smallness of their numbers. They are indeed so few
that the minority has preferred to hide itself by mingling with the major-
ity" (from the reprint in the "Mainzer Volkszeitung, " 1903, No. 225).
A counterpart to this is furnished by the action of the Italian reformists
at the socialist congress at Rome, 1906. Here the reformists avoided a de-
feat only by associating themselves (although their adhesion was repu-
diated by the majority) with a resolution brought forward by the integral-
ists under the leadership of Ferri, a resolution which was expressly directed
against them and which contained various matters irreconcilable with the
reformist theory. Thus they met the attack against them by running
away. Among the Italian reformists there were not wanting some who
regarded this action as inconsistent and politically dishonourable (Besoconto
stenografico del IX Congresso Nazionale a Boma, 1906, Mongini, Eome,
1907, pp. 275 et seq.). Among those who voted against the resolution
were such men as Antonio Graziadei and Alessandro Tasca di Cut6, be-
longing to the old aristocracy of birth, and perhaps for this reason in-
clined to take a more elevated view of human dignity.

rivalry; of leaders 179

All means are good for the conquest iand preservation of power.
It is easy to see this when we read the discussions concerning
the system to be employed for the appointment of the party ex-
ecutive. The various tendencies manifested in this connection
all aim at the same end, namely, at safeguarding the dominance
of some particular group. Thus in France the Guesdists, whose
adherents are numerous but who control a small number only
of the groups, advocate a system of proportional representation ;
the Jauressists, on the other hand, who are more influential in
respect of groups than of members, and also the Herveists, op-
pose proportional representation within the party, for they fear
that this would give the Guesdists group too great a facility for
the enforcement of its own special methods of action, and they
propose to maintain the system of local representation or of rep-
resentation by delegation.^*^

In the American Congress, each party possesses a special com-
mittee which exercises a control over the attendance of its mem-
bers at the sessions, and which on the occasion of decisive votes
issues special summonses or * ' whips. ' ' When an interesting bill
is before the house, the party committee also summons a caucus,
that is to say, a private meeting of the parliamentary group, and
this decides how the congressmen are to vote. All members of
the party are bound by the decision of such a caucus. Naturally
no immediate punishment is possible of those who rebel against
the authority of the caucus; but at the next election the inde-
pendent congressman is sure to lose his seat, for the party-man-
agers at "Washington will not fail to report to their colleagues,
the bosses of the local constituency, the act of insubordination
committed by the congressman concerned. The most vital of all
the caucuses is that which precedes the election of the speaker
of the congress. The ideas and sympathies of the speaker have
a decisive influence upon the composition of the committees and
therefore upon the whole course of legislation. For this reason
his election is of fundamental importance, and is preceded for
several weeks by intrigues and vote-hunting campaigns. Doubt-
less it is not in every case that the votes are decided in advance
at a meeting of the group. Where laws of minor importance are
concerned, every member of Congress is free to vote as he pleases.
But in times of excitement obedience is exacted, not only to the
decisions of the caucus, but also to the authority of the party

*^ Cf . the Paris correspondence of ' ' Avanti, ' ' anno xv, No. 16,

180 POLITICAL PARTIES

leaders. This last applies especially to Congress, for in the Sen-
ate the members are extremely jealous of their absolute equality.
On the other hand, the caucus has an even greater importance in
the case of the Senate, for here the groups are smaller and the
caucus can therefore function more efficiently. The groups in
Congress may number more than two hundred members, whereas
those of the Senate rarely exceed fifty .^^

The parliamentary group of the German social democracy is
likewise dominated, as far as its internal structure is concerned,
by a most rigorous application of the principle of subordination.
The majority of the parliamentary group decides the action of
all its members on the various questions submitted to the Reichs-
tag or to the diets, exercising what is known as the Fraktion-
szwang (group coercion). No individual member has the right
to independent action. Thus the parliamentary group votes as
a single entity, and this not merely in questions of a distinctively
socialist bearing, but also in those which are independent of so-
cialist ideas, and which each might decide according to his own
personal conceptions. It was very different in the French parlia-
ment during the fratricidal struggle between the Jauressists and
the Guesdists before the attainment of socialist unity in France,
for at that time each deputy used to vote as he pleased. But
the German example shows that liberty of opinion no longer ex-
ists where the organization demands common action and where
it has some force of penetration in political life.

In certain cases, however, all these preventive measures fail
of their effect. This happens when the conflict is not simply be-
tween a minority and a majority within the group, but between
the group and one single member who possesses outside parlia-
ment, in certain sections of the party, the full support of the
subordinate leaders. When a conflict occurs in such conditions,
the deputy, though isolated, is sure of victory. The electors, in
fact, usually follow with great docility the oscillations and evo-
lutions of their parliamentary representatives, and they do this
even in constituencies where socialist voters predominate. The
ministers Briand, Viviani, and Millerand have been expelled
from the French socialist party, but the former members of the
socialist organizations in their constituencies have remained faith-
ful to these leaders, resigning from the socialist party, and con-
tinuing as electors to give the ex-socialists their support. Anal-

^' Bryce, The American Commonwealth, abridged ed., Macmillan, New
York, 1907, pp. 152-3.

RIVALRY OF LEADERS 181

ogous were the eases of Jolm Burns in England (Battersea) and
of Enrico Ferri in Italy (Mantua). It was enough in Ferri's
case that at an appropriate moment he should reveal a new truth
to produce immediately a collective change in the political opin-
ions of an entire region. Having first been, with Ferri, revo-
lutionary and irreconcilable, this region became converted in a
single nightj always following Ferri, to the principle of class
co-operation and of participation in ministerial activity.^® In
Germany, the party executive had to make use of all its author-
ity in order^ at the last minute, to induce the comrades of Chem-
nitz to withdraw their support from their deputy Max Schippel,
and those of Mittweida from Otto Gohre, when these two depu-
ties had displayed heterodox leanings.

The tendency of the deputy to set himself above his party is
most plainly manifest precisely where the party is strongly or-
ganized ; especially, therefore, in the modern labour parties ; and
within these, again, more particularly in the reformist sections.
The reformist deputies, as long as they have not upon their side
a majority within the party, carry on an unceasing struggle to
withdraw themselves from the influence of the party, that is to
say, from the mass of the workers who are organized as a party.
In this period of their evolution they transfer their dependence
upon the organized mass of the local socialist section to the elec-
tors of the constituency, who constitute a grey, unorganized, and
more or less indifferent mass. Thus from the organized masses,
who may be under the influence of their opponents within the
party, they appeal to the mass of the electors, with the conten-
tion that it is to these latter alone, or at least chiefly, that they
have to give an account of their political conduct. It is right
to recognize that this appeal to the electorate as the body
which has conferred a political mandate is frequently
based upon genuinely democratic sentiments and principles.
Thus, at the international socialist congress of London (1893),
the four French socialist deputies refused to make use of the

=^Cf. a polemic article wherein Giovanni Zibordi gives an account of a
visit made by Ferri to Mantua after his political volte-face. Zibordi speaks
of the "triumphal tour" of the adored leader, and deplores how Ferri and
Gatti ''passed through the region of Mantua. . . amid the hurrahs of the
workers who knew no better, while accompanied by the impotent disdain and
grief of the socialists who saw thus installed a dangerous dictatorship, a
personal dominion which is the negation of our principles and our methods"
(Giovanni Zibordi, Quel die succede nel Mantovano, "Avanti," anno
XV, No. 119).

182 POLITICAL PARTIES

mandates which had been conferred upon them by political or
corporative groups, thus defying the rules of admission to the
congress. After extremely violent discussions they were ulti-
mately admitted simply as deputies, having raised the question
of principle whether an important constituency capable of re-
turning a socialist deputy to the Chamber should not have the
same rights which are granted to a local socialist or trade-union
branch, especially when it is remembered that such a branch may
consist of a mere handful of members. ^^ It is true that in cer-
tain circumstances a constituency inspired by socialist sentiment,
even if it be not socialistically organized, constitutes a better ba-
sis, in the democratic sense, for political action than a small so-
cialist branch whose members are mostly petty bourgeois or law-
yers ; ^° and even if a large local organization exists, the constit-
uency as a whole is a better basis than a badly attended party
meeting for the selection of a candidate.^^

From our study of the intricate struggles which proceed be-
tween the leaders of the majority and those of the minority, be-
tween the executive organs and the masses, we may draw the
following essential conclusions.

Notwithstanding the youth of the international labour move-
ment, the figures of the leaders of that movement are more im-
posing and more imperious than those displayed in the history
of any other social class of modern times. Doubtless the labour
movement furnishes certain examples of leaders who have been
deposed, who have been abandoned by their adherents. Such
cases are, however, rare, and only in exceptional instances do
they signify that the masses have been stronger than the lead-
ers. As a rule, they mean merely that a new leader has entered
into conflict with the old, and, thanks to the support of the mass,

^ Hubert Lagardelle, Les Origines du Syndicalisme en France, ' ' Mouve-
ment Soeialiste, " anno xi, Nos. 215-216, p. 249.

^° It is well to remind English readers that on the Continent, and especially
in France and Italy, barristers play a conspicuous part in the oligarchy of
socialism, corresponding with that which in England they play in the old
political parties. — Translators' Note.

^^ Einaldo Eigola, the socialist secretary of the Italian General Confedera-
tion of Labour, describes the socialist party as an oligarchy, and therefore
contests its right to present candidatures for the elections and to decide
the policy of the proletariat. In his view, these functions should rather
be allotted to the labour organizations, whose membership is far more ex-
tensive and which could constitute themselves into a Labour Party (Rinaldo
Eigola, Discutendo di un Partito del Lavoro, " Avanti," anno xiv, No. 172).

RIVALRY OF LEADERS 183

has prevailed in the struggle, and has been able to dispossess and
replace the old leader.^- The profit for democracy of such a sub-
stitution is practically nil.

Whenever the Catholics are in a minority, they become fer-
vent partisans of liberty. In proof of this we need merely refer
to the literature issued by the Catholics during the Kidturkampf
under the Bismarckian regime and during the struggle between
Church and State which went on a few years ago in France. In
just the same way the leaders of the minority within the social-
ist party are enthusiastic advocates of liberty. They declaim
against the narrowness and the authoritative methods of the
dominant group/^ displaying in their own actions genuine demo-
cratic inclinations.^*

'^Eichard Calwer, in a declaration to the socialist press, gives the fol-
lowing account of his dethronement as a party leader: " 'Vorwarts' and
the 'Leipziger Volkszeitung ' accept as a matter of principle the resolution
of the party conference of the third Eeichstag-eonstitueney of Brunswick,
by which it was decided to repudiate my candidature in future. They do
this without reflecting upon the moral poverty which the decision exhibits
for the party. The dissatisfaction of the comrades in the constituency
with my economic views is supposed to have increased gradually, and at
length to have become overwhelming. It is strange that during the entire
sixteen years during which I have been a candidate in this constituency
there was not until about a year ago the slightest manifestation of dis-
satisfaction among the comrades in the electorate. Yet never throughout
this period have I made any secret of my views. The local comrades have
been familiar with them from the first and have never, for this reason,
wished to remove their confidence. The alleged divergencies 'in matters
of principle' date from no more than a year back, having begun precisely
at the moment when comrade Antrick came to Brunswick as secretary.
What reasons there were to induce this comrade to attack me ' on principle, '
I do not know. In any case, I neither had nor have inclination or time
to trouble myself about personal quarrels and to dispute with comrade
Antrick" (" Volksstimme, " August 15, 1907).

^ Cf ., for example, the pamphlet issued by the displaced members of
the staff of "Vorwarts," Der VorwdrtsJconfliJct, Gesammelte AktenstiicTce
(Birk, Munich 1905), in which we read: "We are not here concerned
merely with the moral position of the journalists within the party; the
present conflict is a matter of decisive importance to the internal wellbeing
of the German labour movement. The question at issue is that of the
dignity of all the responsible persons in the confidence of the democracy.
What has to be decided is whether a system of absolute publicity is
to be replaced by a secret method of jurisdiction; whether open discus-
sion is to yield to the crafty dissemination of suspicions; whether obscure
intrigue is to oust comradely confidence; whether blind caprice is to be

^ Cf . p. 18.

184 POLITICAL PARTIES

As soon as the new leaders have attained their ends, as soon as
they have succeeded (in the name of the injured rights of the
anonymous masses) in overthrowing the odious tyranny of their
predecessors and in attaining to power in their turn, we see them
undergo a, transformation which renders them in every respect
similar to the dethroned tyrants.^^ Such metamorphoses as
these are plainly recorded throughout history. In the life of
monarchical states, an opposition which is headed by hereditary
princes is rarely dangerous to the crown as an institution. In
like manner, the opposition of the aspirants to leadership in a
political party, directed against the persons or against the system
of the old leaders, is seldom dangerous. The revolutionaries of
to-day become the reactionaries of to-morrow.

more effective than reasoned conviction; whether arbitrary opinion is to
be more influential than established fact — whether, in a word, a regime
of glib demagogy, of personal ambition, and the most unscrupulous place-
hunting, is to be established in the' German social democracy ! ' '

35 ( c -^ijg]! lie ijas the power in his own hands, he ignores the laws which
were made for his restraint" (Giambattista Casti, Gli Animali parlanti,
Poema, Tip. Vanelli e Comp., Lugano, 1824, vol. i, p. 30).

CHAPTER VII

BUREAUCRACY. CENTRALIZING AND
DECENTRALIZING TENDENCIES.

The organization of the state needs a numerous and compli-
cated bureaucracy. This is an important factor in the complex
of forces of which the politically dominant classes avail them-
selves to secure their dominion and to enable themselves to keep
their hands upon the rudder.

The instinct of self-preservation leads the modern state to as-
semble and to attach to itself the greatest possible number of
interests. This need of the organism of the state increases pari
passu with an increase among the multitude, of the conviction
that the contemporary social order is defective and even irra-
tional— in a word, with the increase of what the authorities are
accustomed to term discontent. The state best fulfils the need
for securing a large number of defenders by constituting a nu-
merous caste of officials, of persons directly dependent upon the
state. This tendency is powerfully reinforced by the tendencies
of modern political economy. On the one hand, from the side of
the state, there is an enormous supply of official positions. On
the other hand, among the citizens, there is an even more exten-
sive demand. This demand is stimulated by the ever-increasing
precariousness in the position of the middle classes (the smaller
manufacturers and traders, independent artizans, farmers, etc.)
since there have come into existence expropriative capitalism on
the grand scale, on the one hand, and the organized working
classes on the other — for both these movements, whether they
wish it or not, combine to injure the middle classes. All those
whose material existence is thus threatened by modern economic
developments endeavour to find safe situations for their sons,
to secure for these a social position which shall shelter them from
the play of economic forces. Employment under the state, with
the important right to a pension which attaches to such employ-
ment, seems created expressly for their needs. The immeasur-
able demand for situations which results from these conditions, a

185

186 POLITICAL PARTIES

demand which is always greater than the supply, creates the so-
called * * intellectual proletariat. ' ' The numbers of this body are
subject to great fluctuations. From time to time the state, em-
barrassed by the increasing demand for positions in its service,
is forced to open the sluices of its bureaucratic canals in order
to admit thousands of new postulants and thus to transform
these from dangerous adversaries into zealous defenders and par-
tisans. There are two classes of intellectuals. One consists of
those who have succeeded in securing a post at the manger of
the state, whilst the other consists of those who, as Scipio Sighele
puts it, have assaulted the fortress without being able to force
their way in.^ The former may be compared to an army of slaves
who are always ready, in part from class egoism, in part for per-
sonal motives (the fear of losing their own situations), to under-
take the defence of the state which provides them with bread.
They do this whatever may be the question concerning which
the state has been attacked and must therefore be regarded as the
most faithful of its supporters. The latter, on the other hand,
are sworn enemies of the state. They are those eternally restless
spirits who lead the bourgeois opposition and in part also assume
the leadership of the revolutionary parties of the proletariat. It
is true that the state bureaucracy does not in general expand as
rapidly as do the discontented elements of the middle class. None
the less, the bureaucracy continually increases. It comes to as-
sume the form of an endless screw. It grows ever less and less
compatible with the general welfare. And yet this bureaucratic
machinery remains essential. Through it alone can be satisfied
the claim of the educated members of the population for secure
positions. It is further a means of self-defence for the state.
As the late Amilcare Puviani of the University of Perugia, the
political economist to whom we are indebted for an important
work upon the legend of the state, expresses it, the mechanism of
bureaucracy is the outcome of a protective reaction of a right
of property whose legal basis is weak, and is an antidote to the
awakening of the public conscience.^

The political party possesses many of these traits in common
with the state. Thus the party in which the circle of the elite
is unduly restricted, or in which, in other words, the oligarchy is
composed of too small a number of individuals, runs the risk of

^Scipio Sighele, L'Intelligenza delta Folia, Bocca, Turin, 1903, p. 160.
^Amilcare Puviani, Teoria della Illusione finansiaria, E. Sandron, Milan-
Naples-Palermo, 1903, pp. 258 et seq.

BUREAUCRACY 187

being swept away by the masses in a moment of democratic effer-
vescence. Hence the modern party, like the modern state, en-
deavours to give to its own organization the widest possible base,
and to attach to itself in financial bonds the largest possible num-
ber of individuals.* Thus arises the need for a strong bureau-
cracy, and these tendencies are reinforced by the increase in the
tasks'* imposed by modern organization.^

As the party bureaucracy increases, two elements which consti-
tute the essential pillars of every socialist conception undergo an
inevitable weakening: an understanding of the wider and more
ideal cultural aims of socialism, and an understanding of the
international multiplicity of its manifestations. Mechanism be-
comes an end in itself. The capacity for an accurate grasp of the
peculiarities and the conditions of existence of the labour move-
ment in other countries diminishes in proportion as the individ-
ual national organizations are fully developed. This is plain
from a study of the mutual international criticisms of the social-
ist press. In the days of the so-called ' ' socialism of the emigres, ' '
the socialists devoted themselves to an elevated policy of prin-
ciples, inspired by the classical criteria of internationalism. Al-
most every one of them was, if the term may be used, a special-
ist in this more general and comprehensive domain. The whole
course of their lives, the brisk exchange of ideas on unoccupied
evenings, the continued rubbing of shoulders between men of the
most different tongues, the enforced isolation from the bourgeois
world of their respective countries, and the utter impossibility of
any "practical" action, all contributed to this result. But in
proportion as, in their own country, paths of activity were
opened for the socialists, at first for agitation and soon after-
wards for positive and constructive work^ the more did a recog-
nition of the demands of the everyday life of the party divert

* The governing body of Tammany in New York consists of four hun-
dred persons. The influence of this political association is concentrated
in a sub-committee of thirty persons, the so-called Organization Committee
(Ostrogorsky, La Democratie etc., ed. cit., vol. ii, p. 199).

* Cf . pp. 33 et seq.

" Inquiries made by Lask have shown how deeply rooted in the psychology
of the workers is the desire to enter the class of those who receive pensions.
A very large number of proletarians, when asked what they wished to do
with their sons, replied: "To find them employment which would give
right to a pension." Doubtless this longing is the outcome of the serious
lack of stability characteristic of the social and economic conditions of
the workers (Georg v. Schulze-Gaevernitz, Nochmals: "Marx oder
Kant?," "Archiv fiir Sozialwiss., " xxx, fasc. 2, p. 520).

188 POLITICAL PARTIES

their attention from immortal principles. Their vision gained in
precision but lost in extent. The more cotton-spinners, boot and
shoe operatives, or brush-makers the labour leader could gain
each month for his union, the better versed he was in the tedious
subtleties of insurance against accident and illness, the greater
the industry he could display in the specialized questions of fac-
tory inspection and of arbitration in trade disputes, the better
acquainted he might be with the system of checking the amount
of individual purchases in co-operative stores and with the meth-
ods for the control of the consumption of municipal gas, the
more difficult was it for him to retain a general interest in the
labour movement, even in the narrowest sense of this term. As
the outcome of inevitable psychophysiological laws, he could find
little time and was likely to have little inclination for the study
of the great problems of the philosophy of history, and all the
more falsified consequently would become his judgment of inter-
national questions. At the same time he would incline more and
more to regard every one as an " incompetent, " an " outsider, ' '
an "unprofessional," who might wish to judge questions from
some higher outlook than the purely technical ; he would incline
to deny the good sense and even the socialism of all who might
desire to fight upon another ground and by other means than
those familiar to him within his narrow sphere as a specialist.
This tendency towards an exclusive and all-absorbing specializa-
tion, towards the renunciation of all far-reaching outlooks, is a
general characteristic of modern evolution. With the continuous
increase in the acquirements of scientific research, the polyhistor
is becoming extinct. His place is taken by the writer of mono-
graphs. The universal zoologist no longer exists, and we have
instead ornithologists and entomologists ; and indeed the last be-
come further subdivided into lepidopterists, coleopterists, myrme-
cologists.

To some of the "non-commissioned officers" who occupy the
inferior grades of the party bureaucracy may be aptly applied
what Alfred Webber said of bureaucracy in general at the con-
gress of the Verein fur 8ozialpoUtik held at Vienna in 1909.®

® Cf . ProtoTcoll, pp. 283 et seq. — The Dutch Christian socialist S. J.
Visser has made a scientific attempt to defend the bureaucracy which would
be installed by the socialist state, basing this defence upon the dangers
inherent in private bureaucracy; but his defence must be considered a
complete failure (S. J. Visser, Over Socialisme, M. Nyhoff's Gravenhage.
See Chap. II, " Functionnarisme en Demokratie, " pp. 116-165).

BUREAUCRACY 189

Bureaucracy is the sworn enemy of individual liberty, and of all
bold initiative in matters of internal policy. The dependence
upon superior authorities characteristic of the average employee
suppresses individuality and gives to the society in which em-
ployees predominate a narrow petty-bourgeois and philistine
stamp. The bureaucratic spirit corrupts character and engen-
ders moral poverty. In every bureaucracy we may observe place-
hunting, a mania for promotion, and obsequiousness towards
those upon whom promotion depends ; there is arrogance towards
inferiors and servility towards superiors. Wolfgang Heine, who
in the German socialist party is one of the boldest defenders of
the personal and intellectual liberty of the members, who is al-
ways in the breach to denounce "the tendency to bureaucracy
and the suppression of individuality," goes so far, in his strug-
gle against the socialist bureaucracy, as to refer to the awful
example of the Prussian state. It is true, he says, that Prussia
is governed in accordance with homogeneous principles and by a
bureaucracy which must be considered as a model of its kind;
but it is no less true that the Prussian state, precisely because of
its bureaucratic characteristics, and notwithstanding its external
successes, is essentially retrogressive. If Prussia does produce
any distinguished personalities, it is unable to tolerate their ex-
istence, so that Prussian politics tend more and more to degener-
ate into a spiritless and mechanical regime, displaying a lively
hostility to all true progress.'^ "We may even say that the more
conspicuously a bureaucracy is distinguished by its zeal, by its
sense of duty, and by its devotion, the more also will it show
itself to be petty, narrow, rigid, and illiberal.

Like every centralizing system, bureaucracy finds its justifica-
tion in the fact of experience that a certain administrative unity
is essential to the rapid and efficient conduct of affairs. A great
many functions, such as the carrying out of important statistical
inquiries, can never be satisfactorily effected in a federal system.

The outward form of the dominion exercised by the leaders
over the rank and file of the socialist party has undergone numer-
ous changes pari passu with changes in the historical evolution
of the labour movement.

In Germany, the authority of the leaders, in conformity with
the characteristics of the nation and with the insufficient educa-
tion of the masses, was at first displayed in a monarchical form ;

'Wolfgang Heine Detnokratische Bandiemerkungen sum Fall Gohre,
"Soz. Monatsh.," viii (x), fasc. 4.

190 POLITICAL PARTIES

there was a dictatorship. The first labour organization on Ger-
man soil was the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arheiterverein of Ferdi-
nand Lassalle. This organization was founded in 1873 and lasted
until 1875, when it became fused with the internationalist and
Marxist section of German socialism, the ''Eisenachers." The
personal creation of a man of extraordinary force of character,
it received even in its smallest details the stamp of his personal-
ity. It has been contended that Lassalle 's association was
founded upon the model of the Nationalverein, a German national
league which was extremely influential at that epoch. This may
be true in respect of the base of the Arheiterverein, but is cer-
tainly not true of its summit. The Arheiterverein, like the Na-
tionalverein, was a unitary society whose members were dispersed
throughout Germany and did not form any properly organized
local branches. The membership was not local but national, each
member being directly dependent upon the central organization.
But whereas in the Nationalverein the central executive was a
committee of several members, the Arbeiterverein was autocrati-
cally ruled by a single individual, Ferdinand Lassalle, who exer-
cised, as did his successor Johann Baptist von Schweitzer, as
president of the party of German workers, a power comparable
with that of the doge of the Venetian Eepublic, and indeed a
power even more unrestricted, since the president's power was
not, as was that of the doge, subject to any kind of control
through oligarchical institutions. The president was an absolute
monarch, and at his own discretion nominated his subordinate
officials, his plenipotentiaries, and even his successor. He com-
manded, and it was for the others to obey. This structure of the
organization was not the outcome merely of the personal quali-
ties of Lassalle, of his insatiable greed for power, and of that
egocentric character^ which made him, despite his genius, so
poor a judge of men ; it corresponded also to his theoretical view

^ Already in his student career Lassalle displayed a thoroughly imperious
and egoistic character. In Berlin he offered a distant relative, a young man
of slender means, the privilege of sharing a dwelling whose cost was be-
yond his own purse, but in which he had a great desire to live. Subsequently
he boasted of having found a "sort of valet" in this unlucky youth. Ho
threatened the young man (who was as far as his means permitted paying
his share towards the expenses of the joint establishment) that he would
evict him without ceremony if he should prove lazy or ill-behaved, or should
in any way provoke Lassalle 's displeasure. (Cf. a letter from Lassalle to
his father, dated Berlin, April 24, 1844. Intime Brief e Ferdinand Lassalles
an Eltern u. Schwester, Buchhandlung "Vorwarts," Berlin, 1905, p. 23.)

BUREAUCRACY 191

of the aim of all party organization. In his famous speech at
Ronsdorf he said: "Wherever I have been I have heard from
the workers expressions of opinion which may be summarized as
follows: 'We must forge our wills into a single hammer, and
place this hammer in the hands of a man in whose intelligence,
character, and goodwill we have the necessary confidence, so
that he can use this hammer to strike with ! ' . . . The two
contrasts which our statesmen have hitherto believed incapable
of being united, freedom and authority, whose union they have
regarded as the philosopher's stone — these contrasts are most
intimately united in our Verein, which thus represents in minia-
ture the coming social order ! " ^ Thus in the eyes of the presi-
dent his dictatorship was not simply a sad necessity temporarily
forced upon a fighting organization,^" but dictatorship was the
ultimate aim of the labour movement.^^ In the days of Lassalle,
the labour movement in Germany was still weak, and^ like a
little boy, was still urgently in need of paternal guidance. When
the father came to die he made testamentary arrangements for
the provision of a guardian (for the German labour movement
could still be an object of testamentary depositions). After
Lassalle 's death, the decisive executive power, the quintessence
(if the term be permitted) of the structure of the young labour
movement, continued to rest at the almost absolute disposal of a
single individual, Schweitzer.^- This authoritative tendency was
an outcome, not so much of the historical necessity of the mo-
ment, as of the traditions and of the racial peculiarities of the
German stock. With the lapse of time this characteristic has
been notably attenuated by theoretical and practical democracy,
and by the varying necessities of the case ; above all, by the ap-
pearance of a typically southern socialism, less rigid than that of
Prussia and of Saxony, and jealous of its own autonomy. But
the tendency has not disappeared, nor can it disappear.

Whilst there was thus forming in Germany the massive organ-
ization of the followers of Lassalle, the leaders of the Interna-
tional Association adopted a different form of organization. The
International Workingmen's Association was characterized by

• Ferdinand Lassalle, Die Agitation des Allgemeinen Deutschen Arleiter-
vereins u. das V ersprechen des Konigs von Preussen, ed. cit., p. 40.

" Cf . pp. 41 et seq.

" Cf . Gustav Mayer, J. B. von Schweitzer, etc., ed. cit., p. 256.

"Cf. also Hermann Oncken, Lassalle, Frommann (E. Hauff), Stuttgart,
1904, p. 397.

192 POLITICAL PARTIES

mutual jealousy on the part of the various national sections, and
this was a potent obstacle in the way of any tendency towards
dictatorship. Thus there came into existence in London the
General Council, the supreme authority of the International,
consisting of a handful of members belonging to the different
countries represented in the organization. But the powers of
this executive were in many respects hardly less restricted than
those of the president of the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiter-
verein. The General Council forbade the associations which were
affiliated to it to elect presidents, regarding this as contrary to
democratic principles.^ ^ Yet as far as concerned itself, it proudly
asserted, through the mouth of the most conspicuous among its
members, that the working class had now discovered a ' ' common
leadership."^* It nominated from among its own members the
officers necessary for the general conduct of its business, such as
the treasurer, the general secretary, and the corresponding sec-
retaries for the different countries,^^ nor did it hesitate, on occa-
sions, to allot several offices to the same individual. Engels,
though a German, was for some time secretary for four different
countries — Spain, Italy, Portugal, and Denmark.^'' It may be
added that the secretariat carried with it important prerogatives,
such as the right of recognizing newly constituted sections, the
right to grant or refuse pecuniary subsidies, and the adjustment
of disputes among the comrades.^^ It is unquestionable that for
several years the General Council was subject, in respect of all its
most significant practical and theoretical manifestations, to the
iron will of one single man, Karl Marx.^® The conflict in the

^^ Cf . Compte-Bendu du 4^ Congres International tenu a, Bale en sept. 1869,
D. Brismee, Brussels, 1869, p. 172.

^* (Marx), L 'Alliance de la Democratie Socialiste et I' Association Int.
des Travailleurs, Kapports et Documents, London-Hamburg, 1873, p. 25.

^^Karl Stegmann and C. Hugo (H. Lindemann), Handhuch des Socialis-
mus, J. Schabelitz, Zurich, 1897, p. 342.

"Letter from F. Engels to Sorge, March 17, 1872 (Brief e u. Auszixge
aus Briefen von Joh. Phil. BecTcer, Jos. Dietsgen, Fried. Engels, Karl
Marx, u. A. an F. A. Sorge u. A., Dietz Nachf., Stuttgart, 1906, p. 54).

^''Compte-Bendu du 4^ Congres, p. 172.

^*"A provisional General Council was elected, and the soul of this body,
as of all subsequent General Councils down to the Hague congress of 1872,
was Marx himself. Their history is related elsewhere. In this place it
suffices to say that Marx edited almost all the documents issued by the
General Council, from the inaugural address of 1864 down to the address
dealing with the civil war in France in 1871" (Stegmann u. Hugo, op.
cit., p. 500).

BUREAUCRACY 193

General Council between the oligarchy de jure and the mon-
archy de facto was the inner cause of the rapid decline of the
Old International. The General Council and especially Marx
were accused of being the negation of socialism because, it was
said, in their disastrous greed for power, they had introduced the
principle of authority into the politics of the workers.^** At
first these accusations were directed from without, coming from
the groups that were not represented on the General Council : the
accusers were Bakunin, the Italians, and the Jurassians. The
General Council, however, easily got the upper hand. At the
Hague congress in 1872, the ''authoritarians," making use of
means characteristic of their own tendencies (the hunting of
votes, the calling of the congress in a town which was little ac-
cessible to some of the opponents and quite inaccessible to
others), ^° obtained a complete victory over the anti-authorita-
rians. Before long, however, voices were raised within the Coun-
cil itself to censure the spirit of autocracy. Marx was aban-
doned by most of his old friends. The French Blanquists osten-
tatiously separated themselves from him when he had arbitrarily
transferred the General Council to New York. The two influen-
tial leaders of the English trade unions who were members of
the General Council, Odger and Lucraft, quarrelled with Marx
because they had not been consulted about the manifesto in fa-
vour of the Paris Commune to which their signatures were at-
tached. The German refugees in England, Jung and Eccarius,
declared that it was impossible to work with persons as dicta-
torial as Marx and Engels. Thus the oligarchs destroyed the
larval monarchy.

In 1889 the so-caUed New International was founded. The
socialist parties of the various countries agreed to undertake

"James Guillaume, L'InternaUondle, Documents et Souvenirs, Cornely,
Paris, 1907 vol. ii

''"Idem, p. 327; cf. also a letter from Marx to Sorge, dated London, June
21, 1872, in which Marx begs Sorge to send him a number of blank voting
cards for certain friends in America whom he mentions by name {Brief e
u. Ausziige aus Brief en, ed. cit., p. 33).— The locale of the congress was a
convenient one for the English, the French, and the Germans, who were
on the whole favourable to the General Council, but extremely inconvenient
for the Swiss, the Spaniards, and the Italians, who were on the side of
Bakunin. Bakunin himself, who was living in Switzerland, was unable to
attend the congress, for to reach The Hague he must have crossed Ger-
many or France, and in both these countries he was liable to immediate
arrest.

194 POLITICAL PARTIES

common deliberations, and to meet from time to time in con-
gresses for this purpose. Therewith the "idea of international-
ism" (to quote a phrase employed by Jaeckh) underwent a trans-
formation. The Old International had worked along the lines of
the greatest possible centralization of the international prole-
tariat, "so that it might be possible, at any place at which the
economic class-struggle became especially active, to throw there
immediately into the scale the organized power of the working
class. "^^ The New International, on the other hand, took the
form of an extremely lax system^, a union of elements which were
strangers one to another; these elements were national organi-
zations of a very rigid form, each confined within the limits of
its own state. In other words, the New International is a con-
federation of autonomous states, and lacks any unitary and
homogeneous organization.^^ The Old International was an indi-
vidual dictatorship, masquerading as an oligarchy. The New
International may be compared to the old States General of the
Netherlands; it is a federal republic, consisting of several inde-
pendent oligarchies. The General Council of London was all-
powerful. The modern Secretariat Socialiste International,
whose seat is in Brussels, is nothing but an office for the exchange
of letters, devoid of all authority. It is true that the interna-
tional socialist congresses have sometimes furnished an oppor-
tunity for thoroughly self-conscious and vigorous national oli-
garchies to attempt usurpations in the international field. Thus,
in particular, the German social, democracy, when forced upon
the defensive at the Stuttgart congress of 1907, endeavoured, and
not without success, to impose upon the other socialist parties its
own particular tactics, the verbal revolutionarism which had
originated in the peculiar conditions of .Germany.^^ The inter-
national unification of tactics has always been limited by the
varying needs of the different national oligarchies. In other
words, whilst national supremacies are still possible in the con-

'^Cf. Gustav Jaeckh, Die Internationale, Leipz. Buehdr. Akt. Ges., Leip-
zig, 1904, p. 218.

2== Cf . speech by Wilhelm Liebknecht to the Int. Cong. Paris, 1889 (Proto-
Tcoll, deutsche Uebersetzung, Worlein, Nuremberg, 1890, p, 7).

^^Cf. E. Michels, Die deutsche SosialdemoTcratie im Internationalen Ver-
hande, "Arch, fiir Sozialwiss., " anno 1907). This is a detailed study
of the conditions of fact and the complex of causes which rendered it
possible for the German party to exercise such a pressure upon the other
parties in the International; it deals also with the subsequent decline of its
hegemony.

BUREAUCRACY 195

temporary socialist International, it is no longer possible for the
socialist party of one country to exercise a true hegemony over
the other national parties. The dread of being dominated in-
creases in each national party in proportion as it becomes firmly
established, consolidating its own existence and rendering itself
independent of other socialist parties. International concentra-
tion is checked by the competition of the various national concen-
trations. Each national party stands on guard to prevent the
others from extending their sphere of influence.^* The result is
that the international efficiency of the resolutions voted at the
international congresses is almost insignificant. At the inter-
national socialist congress of Amsterdam, in 1904, the Belgian
Anseele made it clear that he would not regard himself as bound
by an international vote forbidding socialists to participate in
bourgeois governments.-^ Thus, again, Vollmar, with the ap-
proval of the Germans, speaking at the international socialist
congress at Stuttgart in 1907, repudiated any interference on
the part of the French in the military policy of the German
socialists, protesting in advance against any international reso-
lution regulating the conduct of the socialists of all countries in
case of war.-'' Considered from close at hand the international
German principalities of the eighteenth century, consisting of
nobles, ecclesiastics, and a few burgomasters, assemblies whose
chief preoccupation was to avoid yielding to the prince a jot of
their ' ' freedoms, ' ' that is to say of their peculiar privileges. In
just the same way, the various national socialist parties, in their
international congresses, defend with the most jealous care all
their prerogatives and their national particularism, being all
determined to yield not an inch of ground in favour of His Maj-
esty the International.^'^

"Eduard Bernstein expressed himself similarly as long ago as 1893.
Cf. Zur Geschichte u. Theorie des Sosialismus, Edelheim, Berlin-Berne, 1901,
p. 143.

*Cf. speech by Edouard Anseele, ProtoTcoll des intemat. Soz. Congress,
1904, "Vorwarts," Berlin, 1904, pp. 47-9.

*» Cf . speech by Georg von Vollmar, ProtoTcoll des internal. Sos. Congress, ,
1907, "Vorwarts," Berlin, 1907, p. 93.

=" Hence all coherency of tactics is lacking to international socialism, so
that alike theoretically and practically every national "section" works
in accordance with its own will and pleasure. One advocates protection,
another free trade; one adheres to the KuUurl-ampf, whilst others agitate
for the repeal of the laws against the Jesuits. (Cf. E. Michels, Le In-
coerenze internasionali nel Socialismo contemporaneo, "Eiforma Sociale,".
xiii, fasc. 8.) '

196 POLITICAL PARTIES

The national oligarcliies are willing to recognize tlie authority
of international resolutions only when by an appeal to the au-
thority of the International they can quell a troublesome faction
in their own party. Sometimes the leaders of the minority se-
cure an international bull to authenticate the purity of their so-
cialist sentiments as contrasted with the majority, whom they
accuse of heresy. Sometimes, on the other hand, it is the leaders
of the majority who endeavour, on the international field, to gain
a victory over the leaders of the minority, whom they have been
unable to subdue within the limits of their national organization.
A typical example of the former ease is furnished by the action
of the Guesdist minority, at the congress of Amsterdam in 1904,
which endeavoured to discredit in the opinion of the Interna-
tional the ideas of their great cousin Jaures in matters of internal
policy. The manoeuvre proved effective, for the Guesdists suc-
ceeded in attaching Jaures to their chariot, and in holding him
prisoner within the serried ranks of the unified French party.^*
An example of the second mode of action is afforded by the con-
duct of the Italian and German socialist parties in appealing to
the decisions of the international congresses (Paris, 1889; Zu-
rich, 1893 ; London, 1895) in order to get rid of their anti-parlia-
mentary and anarchist factions.

Side by side with this international decentralization, we see
to-day a vigorous national centralization. Certain limitations,
however, must be imposed on this generalization.

In the modern labour movement, within the limits of the na-
tional organizations, we see decentralizing as well as centralizing
tendencies at work. The idea of decentralization makes continu-
ous progress, together with a revolt against the supreme author-
ity of the central executive. But it would be a serious error to
imagine that such centrifugal movements are the outcome of the
democratic tendencies of the masses, or that these are ripe for
independence. Their causation is really of an opposite char-
acter. The decentralization is the work of a compact minority of
leaders who, when forced to subordinate themselves in the cen-
tral jgxecutive of the party as a whole, prefer to withdraw to their
own local spheres of action (minor state, province, or commune).
A group of leaders which finds itself in a minority has no love
for strong national centralization. Being unable to rule the
whole country, it prefers to rule at home, considering it better

^'^Cf. the explanations of Bebel at the German congress of Bremen, 1904
(ProtoTcoll, Berlin, 1904, p. 308).

BUREAUCRACY 197

to reign in hell than serve in heaven. Vollmar, for example, who
in his own land possesses so great an influence that he has been
called the uncrowned king of Bavaria, cannot consent to play
second fiddle in the German national organization. He would
rather be first in Munich than second in Berlin !

The rallying cry of the majority is centralization, while that
of the minority is autonomy. Those of the minority, in order
to gain their ends, are forced to carry on a struggle which often
assumes the aspect of a genuine fight for liberty, and this is
reflected in the terminology of the leaders, who declare them-
selves to be waging war against the new tyranny. "When the
leaders of the minority feel themselves exceptionally strong, they
push their audacity to the point of attempting to deny the right
to existence of the majority, as impersonated in the central ex-
ecutive. At the Italian socialist congress held at Imola in 1902,
the leader of the Italian reformists, Filippo Turati, joined with
his friends in putting forward a formal proposal to suppress the
central executive. It was necessary, he said, to substitute for
this obsolete, dictatorial, and decrepit institution the complete
autonomy of the local organizations, or at least to replace it by
a purely administrative and executive organism consisting of
three specialist employees. He added that it was a form of
jacobinism to wish to govern the whole party from above. The
opponents of this democratic conception rejoined with an effec-
tive argument when they pointed out that if the central execu-
tive were abolished, the parliamentary deputies would remain
the sole and uncontrolled masters of the party. Consequently,
whenever it became necessary to take action upon some urgent
question, when time was lacking to make a direct reference to
the party as a whole, it would be the parliamentary group, de-
riving its authority not from the party but from the electorate,
which would decide upon the line of conduct to be pursued.^^ If
we accept the hypothesis that a true democracy may exist within
the party, the tendency to the subdivision of powers is unques-
tionably anti-democratic, while centralization is, on the other
hand, the best way of giving incontestable validity to the will of
the masses. From this point of view, Enrico Ferri was per-
fectly right when he told the reformists that the proposed abo-

**Such was the view put forward by Ferri, Longobardi, and others.
When a vote was taken, the numbers were equal, and the central executive
was retained {Bendwonto del VII Congresso Nasionale del P. S. I., Imola,
Settemhre, 1902, Libr. Soe. Ital., Eome, 1903, p. 79).

198 POLITICAL PARTIES

lition of the central executive would be equivalent to the sup-
pression of the sovereignty of the members in general, since the
executive is the legitimate expression of the mass-will, and de-
rives its rights from the party congresses.^"

This decentralizing movement which manifests itself within
the various national socialist parties does not conflict with the
essential principle of oligarchy. The minority in opposition,
which has been thus careful to withdraw itself from the control
of the central executive, proceeds within its own sphere of do-
minion to constitute itself into a centralized power no less un-
restricted than the one against which it has been fighting. Thus
such movements as we have been considering represent no more
than an attempt to effect a partition of authority, and to split
up the great oligarchies into a number of smaller oligarchies. In
France and in Italy every socialist deputy endeavours to be-
come as independent as possible of the central executive of his
party, making himself supreme in his local organization. A sim-
ilar process may be observed in Germany, where the persistence
of numerous petty states, mutually independent, and each gov-
erned by its own parliament, has hitherto prevented the consti-
tutional and administrative unification of the party throughout
the country, and has greatly favoured decentralizing tendencies.^^
In consequence of this state of affairs we find in Germany that
all the parties in the separate states, from Bavaria to Hesse, de-
sire autonomy, independence of the central executive in Berlin.
But this does not prevent each one of them from exercising a
centralized authority within its own domain.

The decentralizing currents in German socialism, and more
particularly those of the German south, are adverse to centraliza-
tion only as far as concerns the central executive of Berlin, whilst
within their own spheres they resist federalism with the utmost
emphasis.^^ Their opposition to the centralization in Berlin

^Idem, p. 79.

^ Certain theorists cover these decentralizing tendencies with the mantle
of science. Cf. Arthur Schulz, OelconomiscJie und politische EntwicMungs-
tendensen in Beutschland, Birth, Munich, 1909, p. 95. The sub-title of this
interesting work is Ein Versuch die Autonomieforderung der suddeutsch-
en sozialdemoliratischen Landesorganisationen theoretisch su Begriinden.
Thus the work is in effect an attempt to provide a theoretical foundation
for the claims to autonomy advanced by the socialist organizations in
the various states of southern Germany.

^^ This was pointed out by Adolf Braun at the Bavarian socialist congress
held at Schweinfurt in 1906.

BUREAUCRACY 199

takes the form of a desire in the local parties to retain financial
independence of the central treasury. At the Schweinfurt con-
gress in 1906, Ehrhart, socialist deputy to the Bavarian diet,
said : "It comes to this^ the central executive has the manage-
ment of the money which goes to Berlin, but it is for us to decide
how we shall spend the money which is kept here. ' ' ^^ Hugo
Lindemann of Wiirtemherg, one of the most ardent adversaries
of the Prussianization of the party and an advocate of federal-
ism, has declared that it is undesirable to deplete the local
finances of the South German states in favour of the central
treasury in Berlin, where the executive is always inclined to a
policy of hoarding money for its own sake.^*

The struggles within the modern democratic parties over this
problem of centralization versus decentralization are of great
scientific importance from several points of view. It would be
wrong to deny that the advocates of both tendencies bring for-
ward a notable array of theoretical considerations, and occasion-
ally make valid appeals to moral conceptions. "We have, how-
ever, to disabuse our minds of the idea that the struggle is really
one for or against oligarchy, for or against popular sovereignty
or the sovereignty of the party masses. The tendency to decen-
tralization of the party rule, the opposition to international cen-
tralization (to the far-reaching authority of international bu-
reaux, committees, congresses), or to national centralization (to
the authority of the party executives), has nothing to do with
the desire for more individual liberty.

The democratic tendency may be justified by practical rea-
sons, and in particular by differences in the economic or social
situation of the working classes in the various districts, or by
other local peculiarities. The tendencies to local, provincial, or
regional autonomy are in fact the outcome of effective and in-
eradicable differences of environment. In Germany, the social-
ists of the south feel themselves to be divided as by an ocean
from their comrades of the north. They claim the right of self-
government and participation in government because they live
in countries where parliamentarism already possesses a glorious
history dating from more than a century back, whereas Prussia
is still thoroughly imbued with the authoritarian and feudal
spirit. They claim it also because in the south agriculture is

»"Volksstimme" of Frankfort, March 6, 1906.

** Hugo Lindemann, Centralismus u. Foderalismus in der SosialdemoTcratie,
**Soz. Monatsh.," viii (x), No. 4.

200 POLITICAL PARTIES

carried on mainly under a system of petty proprietorship^, where-
as in the central and eastern provinces of Germany large landed
estates predominate. The result is that class differences, with
their consequent differences of mental outlook, are less conspic-
uous in the south than in the north, so that the opposition to
the socialists is of a different character in the two regions. In
the struggles between the northern and the southern leaders
within the socialist party, struggles which are often lively and
at times extremely violent, each section levels the same accusa-
tion against the other, declaring it to belong to a country in
which civilization is comparatively backward and where theoret-
ical conceptions are obsolete. The socialists of the north con-
tend that those of the south are still living in a petty bourgeois,
pacific, countrified environment, whereas they themselves, in the
land of large-scale manufacture, represent the future. The men
of the south proudly reply that it is they who live in conditions
to which their comrades of the north have yet to attain, by abol-
ishing the large landed estates and by suppressing the class of
junkers.^^

Similar environmental differences divide the Italian socialists.
Here also the socialists of the south demand complete autonomy,
contending that the theoretical basis of socialism in the south is
different from that in the north. They say that in the former
kingdom of Naples the actual conditions of production and dis-
tribution are not such as to establish a sharp distinction between
the two classes which according to classical socialism exist every-
where in strife. Consequently the introduction into this region
of the Marxist revolutionary propaganda would marshal against
socialism, not the great and medium landowners alone^ but also
the petty proprietors.^® Whilst the socialists of the plain of the
Po fiercely oppose a duty upon grain because this would increase
the cost of living for the labouring masses agglomerated in great
cities, the socialists of the south have on several occasions de-
clared in favour of the existing protectionist system, because its
suppression would bring about a crisis in production in a region
where proletarians and employers all alike live by agriculture.^'^

^Arthur Schulz, OeTconomische u. Politische Entwicklungstendensen, ed.
cit, pp. 11, 25, 67.

^Francesco Ciecotti, Socialismo e Cooperativismo agricolo nelV Italia
Meridionale, Nerbini, Florence, 1900, p. 8.

=' Cf. a speech by Gaetano Salvemini at the socialist congress of Florence,
September 21, 1908 {Besoconto, p. 122).

BUREAUCRACY 201

Again, in the north, where manufacturing industry is dominant,
the socialists disapproved of the Tripolitan campaign, whereas
in the south, where they are for the most part agriculturists, an
enthusiastic sentiment in favour of territorial expansion pre-
vailed. In addition to these reasons, which may be termed in-
trinsic because they derive from the objective differences between
the north and the south, we find that an opposition between the
socialists of the two areas arises from the attitude of the govern-
ment in the respective regions. The Italian Government is dou-
ble-faced, being liberal in the north, but often very much the
reverse in the south, for here it is largely in the hands of local
coteries which, in a region where the voters are scattered, become
the sole arbiters in times of election. In the year 1902, when
Giolitti was in power, this duplex attitude of the government
gave rise to a serious difference within the socialist party, for
the socialists of the north did not disguise their ardent desire to
participate in government, whilst those of the south (although
their tendencies were rather reformist than revolutionary) at-
tacked the government fiercely.^^

^ Thus, as has been shown at length, the various tendencies to- 7"

wards decentralization which manifest themselves in almost all
the national parties, whilst they suffice to prevent the formation
of a single gigantic oligarchy, result merely in the creation of a
number of smaller oligarchies, each of which is no less powerful
within its own sphere. The dominance of oligarchy in party life
remains unchallenged.

^Cf. Alessandro Tasca di Cuto, Dell' Opera antisociale del Ministero nel
Mezzogiorno, and Sincerita, "Avanti," December 4 and 11, 1902.

PART THREE

THE EXERCISE OF POWER AND ITS PSYCHOLOGL
CAL REACTION UPON THE LEADERS

I

CHAPTER I

PSYCHOLOGICAL METAMORPHOSIS OF THE
LEADERS

The apathy of the masses and their need for guidance has as its
counterpart in the leaders a natural greed for power. Thus the
development of the democratic oligarchy is accelerated by the
general characteristics of human nature. What was initiated by
the need for organization, administration, and strategy is com-
pleted by psychological determinism.

The average leader of the working-class parties is morally not
lower, but on the whole higher, in quality than the average leader
of the other parties.^ This has sometimes been unreservedly ad-
mitted by the declared adversaries of socialism.^ Yet it cannot
be denied that the permanent exercise of leadership exerts upon
the moral character of the leaders an influence which is essen-
tially pernicious. Yet this also, from a certain point of view, is
perhaps good. The bitter words which La Bruyere applied to the
great men of the court of Louis XIV, that the imitative mania
and veneration exhibited towards them by the masses would have
grown into an absolute idolatry, if it had occurred to any of
them to be simply good men as well as great ones — ^these words,
mutatis mutandis, could be applied with equal truth to the lead-
ers of the vast democratic movements of our own days.^

In the majority of instances^ and above all at the opening of
his career, the leader is sincerely convinced of the excellence of
the principles he advocates. Le Bon writes with good reason:
"Le meneur a d'abord ete le plus souvent un mene. II a lui-

^ For documentary proof of this assertion as far as the Italian labour
movement is concerned cf. E. Michels, II Proletariato e la Borghesia nel
Movimento socialista Italiano, Bocca, Turin, 1908, pp. 28-58, 68-76, 106-14,
265-391; also E. Michels, Ber etMsclie FaUor in der ParteipolitiTc Italiens,
"Zeitschrift fiir Politik," vol. iii, fasc. 1, pp. 56-91.

*Vilfredo Pareto, Les Systemes socialistes, ed. cit., vol. i, p. 61; W. Som-
bart, Dennocli! zur Theorie u. Geschichte der gewerTcschaftlichen Arieiter-
bewegung, Fischer, Jena, 1900, p. 107.

'La Bruyere, Caracteres, Penaud, Paris, p. 156.

205

206 POLITICAL PARTIES

meme ete hypnotise par I'idee dont il est ensuite devenu
I'apotre."* In many cases tlie leader, at first no more than a
single molecule of the mass, has become detached from this in-
voluntarily, without asking whither his instinctive action was
leading him, without any personal motive whatever. He has
been pushed forward by a clearer vision, by a profounder senti-
ment, and by a more ardent desire for the general good ; he has
been inspired by the elasticity and seriousness of his character
and by his warm sympathy for his fellows.^ It is obvious that
this will be true above all where the leader does not find already
established a solid organization capable of offering remunerative
employment, but where his first step must be to found his own
party. But this must not be taken to mean that wherever a
well-organized party already exists the leader seeks at the out-
set to gratify his personal interests.

It is by no means always by deliberate desire that people be-
come officers of the masses. Using familiar French terms, we
may express this more clearly by saying that not every arrive
was at first an arriviste. But he who has once attained to power
will not readily be induced to return to the comparatively ob-
scure position which he formerly occupied.® The abandonment
of a public position obtained at the cost of great efforts and
after many years of struggle is a luxury which only a "grand
seigneur " or a man exceptionally endowed with the spirit of self-
sacrifice can afford. Such self-denial is too hard for the average
man.

The consciousness of power always produces vanity, an undue
belief in personal greatness. The desire to dominate, for good
or for evil, is universal.^ These are elementary psychological
facts. In the leader, the consciousness of his personal worth,*

* Gustave le Bon, Psychologie des Foules, ed. cit., p. 106. Cf . also S. G.
Hobson, Boodle and Cant, "International Socialist Eeview," Chicago, 1902,
ii, No. 8, p. 585.

^Ettore Ciccotti, Montec'itorio, ed. cit., p. 54.

*Pio Viazzi, one of the most trusted deputies in the Italian Chamber, a
member of the republican party, has declared that any one who has once
been elected to parliament will henceforward do all he can to secure re-
election (Pio Viazzi, Le Gioie della Deputasione, "Eivista Populare," anno
XV, No. 9).

^ " L 'amour de la puissance ainsi que 1 'amour de 1 'independanee et de
la liberte, sont des passions inherentes a I'homme" (Holbaeh, Syst ernes
sociales, ou Frincipes naturelles de la Morale et de la Politique, Niogret,
Paris, 1822, vol. i, p. 196).

*" Beyond question individuality is indispensable wherever it is requi-

METAMORPHOSIS OF LEADERS 207

and of the need which the mass feels for guidance, combine to
induce in his mind a recognition of his own superiority (real or
supposed), and awake, in addition, that spirit of command which
exists in the germ in every man born of woman,"*^ We see from
this that every human power seeks to enlarge its prerogatives.
He who has acquired power will almost always endeavour to
consolidate it and to extend it, to multiply the ramparts which
defend his position, and to withdraw himself from the control of
the masses. Bakunin, the founder of anarchizing socialism, con-
tended that the possession of power transformed into a tyrant
even the most devoted friend of liberty.^**- It is certain that the
exercise of power produces a profound and ineffaceable change in
the character. This is admirably described by Alphonse Daudet
when he writes: ''Bien vite, s'il s'agit de I'affreuse politique,
nos qualites tcurnent au pire : I'enthousiasme devient hypocrisie ;
I'eloquence, faconde et boniment; le scepticisme leger, escro-
querie; I'amour de ee qui brille, fureur du lucre et du luxe a
tout prix; la sociabilite, le besoin de plaire, se font lachete, fai-
blesse, et palinodie. " ^^ To retain their influence over the masses

site to incite deliberately to conscious acts of volition. Man derives pleas-
ure from the expression of his individuality in the activities which, thanks
to it, are brought to pass. We should none of us be willing to exchange
our own individualities for those of others, just as we should be unwilling
to change our physiognomy. This inclination results in part from habit,
but in part from self-love. The individual is used to his own defects and
would not like to be deprived of his merits" (Eduard von Hartmann,
GedanJcen uber Individualismus, " Tiirmer- Jahrbuch, " Stuttgart, 1903, p.
215).

'Cf. the psychological reflections of Ugo Foscolo on the evolution of
Napoleon I, Ultime Lettere di Giacopo Ortio, Perino, Rome, 1892, p. 143,

" Bakunin, II Soeialismo e Massini, F. Serantoni, Eome-Florence, 1905,
p. 22. — Similarly Herzen writes: "Donnez a Proudhon le portefeuille des
finances, ou faites-le president, et il sera une espece de Bonaparte" (Alex-
andre Herzen, De V autre Bive, Geneva, 1871, 3rd ed., p. 186). — Shelley's
lines on this subject are singularly apposite: —

"... The man
Of virtuous soul commands not, nor obeys.
Power, like a desolating pestilence,
Pollutes whate'er it touches; and obedience,
Bane of all genius, virtue, freedom, truth.
Makes slaves of men, and, of the human frame,
A mechanized automaton."

— Queen Mob, § iii, 11. 174-80.

"Leon Daudet, Alplwnse Daudet, ed. cit., p. 179.

208 POLITICAL PARTIES

the leaders study men, note their weaknesses and their passions,
and endeavour to turn these to their own advantage.^^

When the leaders are not persons of means and when they
have no other source of income, they hold firmly to their posi-
tions for economic reasons, coming to regard the functions they
exercise as theirs by inalienable right. Especially is this true of
manual workers who, since becoming leaders, have lost aptitude
for their former occupation. For them, the loss of their posi-
tions would be a financial disaster, and in most cases it would be
altogether impossible for them to return to their old way of life.^*
They have been spoiled for any other work than that of propa-
ganda.^* Their hands have lost the callosities of the manual
toiler, and are likely to suffer only from writer's cramp.

Those leaders, again, who are refugees from the bourgeoisie
are used up after having devoted a few years to the service of
the socialist party. It was as youthful enthusiasts that they
joined the organized workers and soon attained to dominant po-
sitions. The life they then had to lead, however great may have
been its advantages in certain respects, was one full of fatigue
and hardship, and, like all careers in which fame can be ac-
quired, was extremely exhausting to the nervous system. Such
men grow old before their time. What are they to do? They
have become estranged from their original profession, which is
altogether out of relation with their chosen vocation of profes-
sional politician. A barrister, indeed, can continue to practise
his profession, and may even devote almost all his time to it,
without being forced to abandon the party. The political strug-
gle and the life of the lawyer have more than one point of con-
tact, for is not the political struggle a continuous act of ad-
vocacy? The barrister who plays a leading part in public life
will find many opportunities for the gratification of his love of
oratory and argument, and will have no lack of chances for the
display of the power of his lungs and the expressiveness of his

^^ Ostrogorsky, La Bemocratie, etc., ed. cit., ii, p. 344.

" Cf . Part IV, chap. v.

" This is not merely true of ' ' those lazy fellows who are good for noth-
ing more than the parrot-like repetition of a few phrases culled from the
party literature, and of those whose only equipment is to have a voice
like that of a bull," from whose influence Sombart would like to see
the workers freed, and for whose eradication he recommends, in especial,
attention to the practical work of the trade unions (Werner Sombart, Ben-
noch.', ed. cit., p. 91) — ^but it applies with equal force to the trade-union
officials destined to replace the type to which he objects.

METAMORPHOSIS OF LEADERS 209

gestures. It is very different with men of science. These, if
they play an active part in the life of the party, he it as journal-
ists, as propagandists, or as parliamentary deputies, find that
their scientific faculties undergo a slow but progressive atrophy.
Having become absorbed in the daily political round, they are
dead for their discipline, for they no longer have time for the
serious study of scientific problems and for the continuous de-
velopment of their intellectual faculties.

There are, however, additional reasons for the mental trans-
formation which the leaders undergo as the years pass.

As far as concerns the leaders of bourgeois origin in the
working-class parties, it may be said that they have adhered to
the cause of the proletariat either on moral grounds^, or from en-
thusiasm, or from scientific eonviction.^^ They crossed the Rubi-
con when they were still young students, still full of optimism
and juvenile ardour. Having gone over to the other side of the
barricade to lead the enemies of the class from which they
sprang, they have fought and worked, now suffering defeats and
now gaining victories. Youth has fled; their best years have
been passed in the service of the party or of the ideal. They
are ageing, and with the passing of youth, their ideals have also
passed, dispersed by the contrarieties of daily struggles, often,
too, expelled by newly acquired experiences which conflict with'
the old beliefs. Thus it has come to pass that many of the lead-
ers are inwardly estranged from the essential content of social-
ism. Some of them carry on a difficult internal struggle against
their own scepticism; others have returned, consciously or un-
consciously, to the ideals of their pre-socialist youth.

Yet for those who have been thus disillusioned, no backward
path is open. They are enchained by their own past. They
have a family, and this family must be fed. Moreover, regard
for their political good name makes them feel it essential to
persevere in the old round. They thus remain outwardly faith-
ful to the cause to which they have sacrificed the best years of
their life. But, renouncing idealism, they have become oppor-
tunists. These former believers, these sometime altruists, whose
fervent hearts aspired only to give themselves freely, have been
transformed into sceptics and egoists whose actions are guided
solely by cold calculation.

As we have previously seen, these new elements do not join the

^ Cf. Part IV, chap, ii.

210 POLITICAL PARTIES

party witli the declared or even tlie subconscious aim of attain-
ing one day to leadership ; their only motives have been the
spirit of sacrifice and the love of battle. Visionaries, they see a
brother in every comrade and a step towards the ideal in every
party meeting.^® Since, however, in virtue of their superiority
(in part congenital and in part acquired), they have become
leaders, they are in the course of years enslaved by all the appe-
tites which arise from the possession of power, and in the end
are not to be distinguished from those among their colleagues
who became socialists from ambition, from those who have from
the first deliberately regarded the masses as no more than an
instrument which they might utilize towards the attainment of
their own personal ambitions.

It cannot be denied that the factor of individuality plays its
part in all this, for different individualities react differently to
the same environment. Just as women and girls in similar erotic
situations act differently in accordance with their varying de-
grees of congenital sexual irritability and with the differences
that have been induced in them by moral education, remaining
immaculate, becoming demi-vierges, or yielding to advances, so
also the specific qualities of the leaders, in so far as these are
acquired and not immanent, manifest themselves differently in
different individuals in face of the numerous temptations to
which they are exposed in party life.^'^ The sense of satiety
which arises in those who have attained their end varies greatly
in intensity from person to person. There are similar variations
in adaptability to a new and anti-democratic environment, or to

** This may be seen in the accounts whicli many socialists have given of
their first adhesion to the party. For instance: "And from these as-
semblies come forth the new converts from the bourgeoisie, freed from
their last doubts, having attained to a new state of mind, to a peace hitherto
unknown; the younger men full of thoughts unfamiliar to their heedless
youth; the older ones rejuvenated in heart and spirit; all filled with a
profound sense of complacency, as if in the meeting they have attended
there had not been talk merely, but action, labour for the good of the
world, dispersing for the future the blessed seed of truth, benevolence,
and justice" (Edmondo de Amicis, Le Discordie socialiste, "Avanti,"
anno viii. No. 2665, 1907). As regards Holland, F. Domela Nieuwenhuis
writes in similar terms in Van Christen Tot Anarchist, ed. cit., p. 100. Aa
Turati well expresses it, this is * ' the golden age, the age of apostolic, pure,
and immaculate spirits" (Filippo Turati, II Partito socialist a italiano, ed.
cit., p. 10).

" This is admitted by Arturo Labriola, Biforme e Bivolusione sociale, ed.
cit., p. 225.

METAMORPHOSIS OF LEADERS 211

an environment hostile to the ideas which the individual has at
heart. Some socialists, for instance, are so greatly intimidated
by the parliamentary milieu that they are ashamed in that
milieu to make use of the expressions ' ' class struggle ' ' and ' ' col-
lectivism," ^^ although it is to the unwearying insistence upon
these ideas that they owe their present position. Others among
their comrades find amid all the circumstances of their new life
that right feeling and that old courage of conviction which can-
not be prescribed by any formal rules. It is absurd to maintain,
as does Giuseppe Prezzolini, that in the parliamentary atmos-
phere it is as impossible for a deputy to preserve his socialist
purity as it would be for a Joseph to remain chaste while fre-
quently visiting brothels.^'' Such a view is false, if only for the
reason that here, as in all social phenomena, we have to consider
the personal as well as the environmental factor. It is neverthe-
less true that in the course of party evolution, as the led becomes
a subordinate leader, and from that a leader of the first rank, he
himself undergoes a mental evolution, which often effects a com-
plete transformation in his personality.^" When this happens,
the leader often sees in his own transformation nothing more
than a reflex of a transformation in the surrounding world. The
times have changed, he tells us^ and consequently a new tactic
and a new theory are necessary. A greater maturity of judg-
ment corresponds to the greater maturity of the new age. The
reformist and revisionist theory in the international socialist
party is largely the outcome of the psychological need to furnish
an explanation and an excuse for the metamorphosis which has
taken place in the leaders. A few years ago, one of the leaders
of the Italian clericals, after declaring that triumphant reform-

^ Cf . Ettore Ciceotti, Fsicologia del Movimento socialisia, ed. cit., p. 292.

^' G. Prezzolini, La Teoria sindacalista, PerreEa, Naples, 1909, p. 65.

*°At the German socialist congress of Frankfort (1894) it was above
all the present leaders of the great German trade unions, such as Bomel-
burg, Legien, and Timm, who contended that the salaries of the employees
of the labour movement should be restricted to a very moderate figure {Pro-
tokoll, p. 69). In the seventies, Eugene Fourniere actively opposed Louis
Blanc, the former maintaining the socialist principle that the socialist
deputies ought to pay over to the party treasury the whole of the 9,000
francs which was at that time the deputy's salary (Jean AUemane, Le
Socialisme en France, Imp. Ouviere, rue St. Sauveur, Paris, 1900, p. 7).
Thirty years later, this same Fourniere, now himself a deputy, when a
party congress decided that a portion of the salary of the socialist depu-
ties (meanwhile increased to 15,000 francs) must be paid over to the
party treasury, declared that he could not spare any of it.

212 POLITICAL PAKTIES

ism, having an evolutionary and legalist character, was in these
respects preferable to strict syndicalism, went on to say that in
his view the basis of reformist socialism was still the materialist
conception of man, of life, and of history, but further corrupted
by contact with the utilitarian and Epicurean spirit of the free-
thinking bourgeoisie, and that it was consequently even more
profoundly anti-Christian than the ideas of the ultra-revolution-
ists.^^ There is a kernel of truth in this idea. However much
we are forced to recognize that reformism sometimes manifests
itself as a sane rebellion against the apriorism of orthodox Marx-
ist dogma, and as a scientific reaction against the phraseology of
pseudo-revolutionary stump-orators, it is nevertheless incontest-
able that reformism has a logical and causal connection with the
insipid and blase sciolism and with the decadent tendencies which
are so plainly manifest in a large section of the modern bour-
geois literary world. In many instances, in fact, reformism is
no more than the theoretical expression of the scepticism of the
disillusioned, of the outwearied, of those who have lost their
faith ; it is the socialism of non-socialists with a socialist past.

It is above all the sudden passage from opposition to partici-
pation in power which exercises a powerful influence on the men-
tality of the leaders. It is evident that in a period of proscrip-
tions and persecutions of the new doctrine and its advocates on
the part of society and of the state, the morality of the. party-
leaders will maintain itself at a much higher level than in a
period of triumph and of peace, if only for the reason that in
the former conditions those of egotistic temperament and those
inspired by narrow personal ambition will hold aloof from the
P'arty since they have no desire for the martyr 's crown.^ These
considerations apply, not merely to the old leaders who have been
members of the party during its days of tribulation, and whose
qualities, if not completely corrupted by the sun of governmental

^^Filippo Meda, II Partito socialista in Italia dell' Internationale at
Mformismo, Lib. ed. Florentina, Florence, 1909, p. 46.

^^In troublous times the socialists are glad to avail themselves of refer-
ences to the high ethical qualities of their leaders as a means of agitation.
A pamphlet issued in 1894 by the Ehenish socialist Wilhelm Gewehr, Warum
der Kampf gegen die SozialdemoTcratie? (Grimpe, Elberfeld, p. 32), closes
with the words: "Let him who has honourable and loyal intentions
towards the poor place himself on the side of the socialists, who are fighting
and sacrificing themselves on behalf of the ideal ! " In times of struggle
such utterances have no ludicrous flavour. — Regarding Italian conditions,
cf. E. Michels, Ber ethische Faktor, etc., ed. cit., pp. 68 et seq.

METAMORPHOSIS OF LEADERS 213

favour (so as to lead them to abandon the cause of the prole-
tariat) , are yet so greatly changed as to render them almost un-
recognizable by the masses; but it is equally true of the new
leaders who do not put in an appearance until the sun has begun
to shine upon the party.

As long as the struggle on behalf of the oppressed brings
to those engaged in it nothing more than a crown of thorns,
those members of the bourgeoisie who adhere to socialism must
fulfil functions in the party exacting great personal disinter-
estedness. Bourgeois adherents do not become a danger to
socialism until the labour movement, abandoning its principles,
enters the slippery paths of a policy of compromise.

At the international congress of Amsterdam, Bebel exclaimed
with perfect truth, in answer to Jaures: "When a socialist
party forms an alliance with a section of the bourgeoisie, and
institutes a policy of co-operation with the government, not only
does it repel its own best militants, driving them into the ranks
of the anarchists, or into isolated action, but it also attracts to
itself a swarm of bourgeois of very dubious value. " ^^ In Italy,
during the period of persecutions, all scientific investigators
bore striking witness to the high moral qualities of the socialist
leaders. No sooner, however, had the socialist party (towards
1900) begun to display friendship for the government than
voices were heard on all hands deploring a deterioration in the
composition of the party, and denouncing the numerous elements
entering the party simply because they regarded it as the best
means by which they could secure a share in the loaves and
fishes of public administration.^*

"Wherever the socialists have gained control of the munici-

=^From the report in "Het Volk," v. No. 1341. In the German Pro-
toJcoll (which, be it remarked in passing, is extremely inadequate) this
passage is not reported. Bebel 's observation is in flat contradiction with
what he has frequently said in the Eeichstag, that in his view the carrying
of socialism into effect after the victory would be greatly facilitated by
the inevitable adhesion to the various branches of the new administration,
of numerous competent elements from the official bureaucracy. (Cf.
August Bebel, Zulunftstaat und Sosialdemokratie, p. 13; speech in Eeichs-
tag, February 3, 1893.)

**Cf. E. Michels, II Proletariato e la Borghesia, etc., ed. cit., p. 348;
Eomeo Soldi, Die politisclie Lage in Italien, * ' Neue Zeit, ' ' xxi. No. 30, p.
116; Giovanni Lerda, SulV Organizzazione politica del Partito socialista
italiano, a report to the Italian socialist congress of 1902, Coop. Tip.-Ed.,
Imola, 1902, p. 10; Filippo Turati, II Partito socialista e I'attuale Momenta
politico, "Critica Sociale," Milan, 3rd ed., 1901.

214. POLITICAL PARTIES

palities, wherever they run people's banks and distributive co-
operative societies, wherever they have remunerative posts at
their disposal, we cannot fail to observe a notable decline in
their moral level, and to see that the ignorant and the self-
seeking now constitute the majority among them.

CHAPTER II

BONAPARTIST IDEOLOGY

Napoleon I, as head of the state, desired to be regarded as the
chosen of the people. In his public activities, the emperor
boasted that he owed his power to the French people alone.
After the battle of the Pyramids, when his glory began to at-
tain its acme, the general imperiously demanded that there should
be conferred on him the title of premier representant du peuple,
although hitherto the style of ' ' popular representative ' ' had been
exclusively reserved for members of the legislative bodies.^
Later, when by a plebiscite he had been raised to the throne of
France, he declared that he considered his power to repose ex-
clusively upon the masses.^ The Bonapartist interpretation of
popular sovereignty was a personal dictatorship conferred by
the people in accordance with constitutional rules.^

The CEesarism of Napoleon III was founded in still greater
measure upon the principle of popular sovereignty. In his letter
to the National Assembly written from London on May 24, 1848,
the pretender to the crown recognized the French Republic which
was the issue of the February revolution and was founded upon
universal suffrage. At the same time he claimed for himself, and
at the expense of the exiled king Louis Philippe, a hereditary
right to insurrection and to the throne. This recognition and
this claim were derived by him from the same principle. With
simultaneous pride and humility he wrote : ' ' En presence d 'un

^ Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, Idees napoleoniennes, 1839, Italian ed.,
Pelazza, Turin, 1852, p. 74.

2 IMd., p. 119.

'At times, indeed, a casuistical significance was given to the term "popu-
lar sovereignty" which deprived it of all practical meaning. Thus in St.
Helena Napoleon said: "Le premier devoir du prince est de faire ce que
veut le peuple; niais ee que veut le peuple n'est presque jamais ee qu'il dit;
sa volonte, ses besoins doivent se trouver moins dans sa bouche que dans
le cceur du prince" (Emmanuel Augustin Dieudonne Las Cases, Memorial
de Ste-HSUne, Paris, 1821, vol. ii, p. 82). This note is often sounded in
the public utterances of modern party leaders (cf. pp. 152, 153).

216 POLITICAL PARTIES

roi elu par deux cents deputes, je pouvais me rappeler etre
I'heritier d'un empire fonde sur I'assentiment de quatre millions
de francais; en presence de la souverainete nationale (resultante
du suffrage universel), je ne peux et ne veux revendiquer que
mes droits de citoyen frangais."* But Napoleon III did not
merely recognize in popular sovereignty the source of his power,
he further made that sovereignty the theoretical basis of all his
practical activities. He made himself popular in France by de-
claring that he regarded himself as merely the executive organ
of the collective will manifested in the elections, and that Jie
was entirely at the disposition of that will, prepared in all
things to accept its decisions.^ With great shrewdness, he con-
tinually repeated that he was no more than an instrument, a
creature of the masses. While still president he declared in a
speech that he was prepared as circumstances might dictate
either for abnegation or for perseverance, or, in other words, that
he was ready to go or to remain.^ It was the pure Bonapartist
spirit which was expressed by Ollivier, the keeper of the seals,
when in the Chamber, in one of the stormy sittings of the sum-
mer of 1870, he declared : ' ' Nous vous appartenons ; vous nous
reprendrez quand vous voudrez, nous serons tou jours la pour
subir vos reproches et vos anathemes. ' ' "^

Bonapartism recognized the validity of the popular will to
such an extreme degree as to concede to that will the right of
self-destruction : popular sovereignty could suppress itself. Yet
if we look at the matter from a purely human point of view,
popular sovereignty is inalienable. Moreover, if we think of
succeeding generations, it seems illogical and unjust that those
of this generation should claim the moral right of renouncing on
behalf of their descendants. Consequently the democrats of the
Napoleonic epoch insisted most energetically that the power of
popular sovereignty was limited to this extent, that it did not
carry with it any right of abdication.^ Bonapartism is the theory
of individual dominion originating in the collective will, but

* Eugene Tenot, Paris en Decembre 1851. Etudes Jiistoriques sur le Coup
d'Etat, Le Chevalier, Paris, 1868, p. 10.

"Victor Hugo, Napoleon le Petit, Jeffs, London, 1852, p. 54.

® E. Tenot, Paris en Decembre 1851, ed. eit., p. 26.

^Gamier Pages, L' Opposition et I' Empire. Derniere Seance du Corps
Legislatif, 1870. Bibl. Democratique, Paris, 1872, p. 157.

*G. B. A. Godin, La Souverainete et les Droits du Peuple, Bibl. Dem.,
Paris, 1874, pp. 115 et seq.

BONAP ARTIST IDEOLOGY 217

tending to emancipate itself of that will and to become sovereign
in its turn. In its democratic past it finds a shield against the
dangers which may threaten its anti-democratic present.® In
Bonapartism, the rule of Cassar (as was said by a wit of the last
years of the second empire) becomes a regular organ of the pop-
ular sovereignty. "II sera la democratie personnifiee, la nation
faite homme."^° It is the synthesis of two antagonistic con-
cepts, democracy and autocracy.^^

*Emile Littre, in his Dictionnaire de la Langue frangaise (Hachette,
Paris, 1863), under the word Cesarisme, speaks of "princes portes au gou-
vernement par la democratie, mais revetus d'lm pouvoir absolu" (vol. i,
p. 534).

^^ Cf . Edouard Laboulaye, Paris en Amerique, Charpentier, Paris, 1869,
24th ed., p. 381. — The Bonapartist conception of popular sovereignty is
not democratic, while, on the other hand, it in no way corresponds with the
political conception of legitimate monarchy, Jurieu, a Protestant pastor,
endeavoured in the seventeenth century to find a theoretic foundation for
absolute monarchy in popular sovereignty, but without success. Bossuet,
the greatest writer on the idea of the state in the days of Louis XIV,
paraphrased the ideas of Jurieu in the following ironical sentences: "Le
peuple fait les souverains et donne la souverainete : done le peuple possede
la souverainete et la possede dans un degre plus eminent; car celui qui com-
munique doit posseder ee qu'il communique, d'une maniere plus parfaite,
et quoiqu'un peuple qui a fait un souverain ne puisse plus exercer la sou-
verainete par lui-meme, e'est pourtant la souverainete du peuple qui est
exereee par le souverain; et I'exercice de la souverainete, qui se fait par
un seul, n'empeche pas que la souverainete ne soit dans le peuple comme
dans sa source, et comme dans son premier sujet" (Bossuet, Cinquieme
Avertissement aux Protestants sur les Lettres de M. Jurieu contre I'Histoire
des Variations, CEuvres, Paris, 1743, vol. iv, p. 280). — Only in quite recent
times, in which, as we have seen, certain opportunists have endeavoured to
justify monarchy from a democratic standpoint, has the attempt of Julieu
been revived, although in a somewhat different form. In Germany, Fried-
rich Naumann issued the watchword "Democracy and Emperordom"
(DemoTcratie und Kaisertum). In Italy, Ettore Sacchi, the leader of
the bourgeois-radical party, has based his acceptance of the monarchy upon
the opinion that (in Italy) it is a democratic institution, in the first place
because it has been expressly sanctioned by the people, and in the second
place because the monarchy is now tacitly accepted by all (Giuseppe Eensi,
Gli, " Ancien Eegime" e la Deniocrasia diretta, Colombi, Belinzona, 1902,
p. 7). It may, however, be pointed out that in the plebiscite of 1861, in
which the people who had been freed from their princes declared themselves
in favour of the rule of the House of Savoy, the question had really been

^ Hohenlohe relates that in 1874, when he was ambassador in Paris, some
one said to him that the Frenchman is democrate and authoritaire. Con-
sequently the empire was the best form of government for the French and
was the hope of the future, for this form of government satisfied both
these popular needs (BenkwurdigTceiten, ed. cit., vol. ii, p. 126). Napo-

218 POLITICAL PARTIES

Once elected, the chosen of the people can no longer be op-
posed in any way. He personifies the majority, and all resist-
ance to his will is antidemocratic. The leader of such a democ-
racy is irremovable, for the nation, having once spoken, cannot
contradict itself. ^^ He is, moreover, infallible, for ''I'Elu de six
millions de suffrages execute les volontes du peuple, il ne les
trahi pas." It is reasonable and necessary that the adversaries
of the government should be exterminated in the name of popular
sovereignty, for the chosen of the people acts within his rights
as representative of the collective will, established in his position
by a spontaneous decision.^* It is the electors themselves, we
are assured, who demand from the chosen of the people that he

put in such a way as to leave no other choice, for the alternatives proposed
were the kingdom versus nothing at all. Further, if we were to accept the
principle that tacit endurance signifies approval, every political situation
would, apart from open rebellion of the ruled, be established upon a granite
foundation of democracy. But such an idea of democracy is illogical, as
false as is the logic of those bad governments which, as Macaulay says in
one of his speeches, justify themselves by appealing to the aphorism: if
the people is unruly, it is not ripe for liberty; while if it is quiet, it does
not desire liberty.

leon III admirably characterized the nature of Bonapartism when he de-
clared of his system that it was based on democracy, since all its powers
were conferred by the people, whilst in organization it was hierarchical,
since such an organization was essential to stimulate the capacities slum-
bering ia the various degrees of society {Idees Napoleoniennes, ed. cit., p.
83).

"In the time of Napoleon I a subtle distinction was made between the
terms emaner and resider. In 1814, Count Mole remarked to the emperor
that in the declaration of the Council there were certain dangerous words
which recalled nothing so much as the principles of 1793: "EUe com-
mence par 'toute souverainete reside dans le peuple.' Avec ce principe le
peuple pent changer de gouvernement et de monarque tons les jours; il
donne et retire a son gre la couronne, il pourra la refuser a votre fils;
encore, s'il y avait emane; on pourrait dire qu'en deleguant a jamais a un
homme et a sa race la souverainete il aliene le droit de la lui retirer, mais
reside ne laisse pas de bornes a 1 'instabilite des institutions et du trone. "
— ' ' Votre observation est tres juste, j 'en suis f rappe, ' ' replied the em-
peror (Comte Mole, Les Cent- J ours. Documents inedits, "Eevue de la Eevo-
lution," 1888, vol. xi, p. 95).

"Such were the expressions used by Louis Napoleon in a speech at
Lyons, immediately after he had been elected Life-President of the Ee-
public (E. Tenot, Faris en Becembre 1851, ed. cit., p. 26). — When he first
assumed the presidency in December 1848, Louis Napoleon, speaking to the
Chamber, solemnly enunciated the principle: "3e verrai des ennemis de
la Patrie dans tons ceux qui tenteraient de changer par des voies illegales ee
que la France entiere a etabli" (V. Hugo, Napoleon le Petit, ed. cit., p. 16).

BONAP ARTIST IDEOLOGY 219

should use severe repressive measures, should employ force,
should concentrate all authority in his own hands.^* One of the
consequences of the theory of the popular will being subsumed
in the supreme executive is that the elements which intervene
between the latter and the former, the public officials, that is to
say, must be kept in a state of the strictest possible dependence
upon the central authority, which, in its turn, depends upon
the people.^^ The least manifestation of liberty on the part of
the bureaucracy would be tantamount to a rebellion against the
sovereignty of the citizens. The most characteristic feature of
this view is the idea that the power of the chief of the state
rests exclusively upon the direct will of the nation. Bonapartism
does not recognise any intermediate links. The coup d'etat of
December 2, 1851, was represented as an emancipation of the
people from the yoke of parliament, and as having for its nec-
essary corollary a plebiscite. Victor Hugo compared the rela-
tionship between the parliament and the ministry under Na-
poleon III to the relationship between master and servants, the
master (the ministry) being appointed by the emperor, and the
servants (the parliament) being elected by the people.^® This
affirmation, though incontestable in fact, is theoretically inexact.
In theory, every act of Bonapartism was perfectly legitimate,
even if it led to the shedding of the blood of the citizens. The
plebiscite was a purifying bath which gave legitimate sanction
to every illegality. Napoleon III, when he received the formal
announcement of his triumph in the plebiscite, declared that if
in the coup d'etat he had infringed the laws it was only in
order to reenter the paths of legality: "Je ne suis sorti de la
legalite que pour rentrer dans le droit. ' ' He was granted abso-
lution by seven million votes.^^ This sanction by plebiscite,
three times repeated by the French people, and given to the
illegal government of the third Napoleon — confirmed as it was
by innumerable and noisy demonstrations of popular sympathy
— gave to accommodating republicans a ready pretext for passing
from the side of the opposition to that of the monarchy. "Was

"Napoleon III maintained that it was only on account of the demo-
cratic instincts of the first Napoleon that the emperor had not abolished
the legislative bodies. The people would have had no objection to their
abolition (Idees Napoleoniennes, ed. cit., p. 71).

"^Ibid., p. 38.

"V. Hugo, Napoleon le Petit, ed. cit., pp. 79, 80.

" E. Tenot, Paris en Decemire, 1851, ed. cit., pp. 206, 207.

220 POLITICAL PARTIES

not tliis plebiscitary Cgesarism established upon the same foun-
dation as the republic of their dreams? Emile Ollivier divided
the forms of government into the two great categories of per-
sonal and national government. The ruler in the case of a na-
tional government is no more than "un delegue de la nation
pour 1 'exercice des droits sociaux. " ^^ In this manner his re-
publican conscience was tranquillized and his conversion to
Bonapartism could present itself as logical and in conformity
with his principles.

The history of modern democratic and revolutionary parties
and trade unions exhibits phenomena similar to those we have
been analysing. The reasons are not far to seek. In demo-
cratic crowds, Bonapartism finds an eminently favourable soil,
for it gives the masses the illusion of being masters of their
masters; moreover, by introducing the practice of delegation it
gives this illusion a legal colour which is pleasing to those who
are struggling for their ''rights." Delegation, and the abdi-
cation by the people of the direct exercise of power, are accom-
plished in strict accordance with all the rules, by a deliberate
act of the popular will, and without that metaphysical divine
intervention vaunted on its own behalf by the detested heredi-
tary and legitimate monarchy. The chosen of the people thus
seems to be invested in his functions by a spontaneous act of
the popular will; he appears to be the creature of the people.
This way of looking at the relations between the masses and
the leaders is agreeable to the amour propre of every citizen,
who says to himself : ' ' Without me he would not be what he is ;
I have elected him; he belongs to me."
/Qr / There is another reason, at once psychological and historical,
why the masses accept without protest a certain degree of tyr-
anny on the part of their elected leaders : it is because the crowd
submits to domination more readily when each one of its units
shares the possibility of approximating to power, and even of
acquiring some power for himself. The bourgeois and the
French peasants in the middle of the nineteenth century, im-
bued with democratic ideas, detested legitimate monarchy;, but
they gladly gave their votes to the third Napoleon, remembering
how readily many of their fathers had become great dignitaries
under his glorious uncle.^®

^* Emile Ollivier, Le 19 Janvier. Compte Bendu aux Electeurs de la III^
Circonscription de la Seine, Paris, 1869, 7th ed. p. 119.
"Alexandre Herzen, Be I' autre Bive, Greneva, 1871, 3rd ed., p. 119. — In

BONAP ARTIST IDEOLOGY 221

V Similarly in the case of political parties, the weight of an ^"^
oligarchy is rarely felt when the rights of the masses are codi-
fied, and when each member may in the abstract participate in
power. \

In virtue of the democratic nature of his election, the leader
of a democratic organization has more right than the born leader
of the aristocracy to regard himself as the emanation of the col-
lective will, and therefore to demand obedience and submission
to his personal will. As a socialist newspaper puts it: "The
party executive is the authority imposed by the party as a whole
and thus incorporating the party authority. The first demand
of democratic discipline is respect for the executive. ' ' ^° The
absolute obedience which the organized mass owes to its leaders
is the outcome of the democratic relationships existing between
the leaders and the mass, and is merely the collective submis-
sion to the collective will.^^

The leaders themselves, whenever they are reproached for an
anti-democratic attitude, appeal to the mass-will from which
their power is derived by election, saying: "Since the masses
have elected us and re-elected us as leaders, we are the legiti-
mate expression of their will and act only as their representa-
tives. " ^^ It was a tenet of the old aristocracy that to disobey
the orders of the monarch was to sin against God. In modern
democracy it is held that no one may disobey the orders of the
oligarchs, for in so doing the people sin against themselves, de-
fying their own will spontaneously transferred by them to their
representatives,-^ and thus infringing democratic principle. In

the light comedy Le Gamin de Paris by Bayard and Vanderburgh the words
of the general typify the role of Napoleonism among the French common
people: "Nous etions des enfants de Paris . . . des imprimeurs . . .
des fils de charrons, nous avions du coeur . . . nous voulions faire notre
chemin . . . nous serious peutetre restes en route . . . sans I'Empereur!
. . . qui s'est trouve la . . . qui nous a emportes dans son tourbillon.
... La chance etait tout!" (Velhagen, Bielefeld, 1861, 4th ed., p. 77).

2° ' ' Diisseldorf er Volkszeitung, ' ' November 13, 1905.

"This idea is admirably expressed by Eienzi (Van Kol), Socialisme et
Liberie, ed. cit., p. 249.

" This argument is repeatedly employed by socialist speakers. Their
reasoning is that the veiy fact that the leaders are still leaders proves that
they have the support of the masses — otherwise they would not be where
they are, (Cf. Karl Legien's speech at the socialist congress of Jena ^
(Protokoll, "Vorwarts," Berlin, 1905, p. 265); also P. J. Troelstra, In-
sake Fartijleiding, Toelichtingen en Gegevens, ed. cit., p. 97.)

^ During the second empire the like reasoning was applied to defend

222 POLITICAL PARTIES

democracies, the leaders base their right to command upon the
democratic omnipotence of the masses. Every employee of the
party owes his post to his comrades, and is entirely dependent
upon their goodwill. "We may thus say that in a democracy
each individual himself issues, though indirectly, the orders
which come to him from above.^* Thus the reasoning by which
the leaders' claim to obedience is defended and explained is,
in theory, clear and unanswerable. In practice, however, the
election of the leaders, and above all their re-election, is effected
by such methods and under the influence of suggestions and
other methods of coercion so powerful that the freedom of choice
of the masses is Considerably impaired.^^; In the history of party
life it is undeniable that the democratic system is reduced, in
ultimate analysis, to the right of the masses, at stated intervals,
to choose masters to whom in the interim they owe unconditional
obedience. ''/

Under these conditions, there develops everywhere in the
leaders, alike in the democratic political parties and in the trade
unions, the same habit of thought. They demand that the masses
should not merely render obedience, but that they should blindly
and without murmuring carry out the orders which they, the
leaders, issue deliberately and with full understanding of the
circumstances. To the leaders it is altogether inconceivable that
the actions of the supreme authority can be subjected to criti-
cism, for they are intimately convinced that they stand above
criticism, that is to say above the party. Engels, who was en-
dowed with an extremely keen sense of the essence of democracy,
regarded it as deplorable that the leaders of the German socialist
party could not accustom themselves to the idea that the mere
fact of being installed in office did not give them the right to
be treated with more respect than any other comrade.^®

the plebiscitary emperordom. For instance, Edmond About, one of the
few distinguished democratic writers who had gone over to the Napoleonic
camp, wrote: "Ce n'est pas obeir que de se conformer aux lois qu'on a
faites, de remplir ses engagements envers les chefs qu'on a choisis: c'est se
commander a soi-meme" (Edmond About, Le Tr ogres, Haehette, Paris,
1864, p. 67).

^*We owe to Georges Sorel the rediscovery of the relationships between
democracy in general and absolutism, and their point of intersection in
centralization. Cf., for instance, his lies Illusions du Progres, Kiviere,
Paris, 1908, pp. 9 et seq.

=== Cf . pp. 156 et seq.

^F. Engels, in a letter dated March 21, 1891; also Karl Marx, in a let-

BONAP ARTIST IDEOLOGY 223

It is especially exasperating to the leaders wlien the com-
rades are not content with mere criticism, but act in opposition
to the leaders' advice.^'^ When they speak of their differences
with those whom they regard as inferiors in education and in-
telligence, they are unable to restrain their moral indignation at
such a profound lack of disciplined^ When the masses "kick
against the advice of the leaders they have themselves chosen,"
they are accused of a great lack of tact and of intelligence. In
the conference of trade-union executives held from February
19 to 23, 1906 — a conference which marks an important stage in
the history of the German labour movement — Paul IMliller, em-
ployee of a trade union, complained bitterly that his revolu-
tionary comrades of the socialist party were endeavouring "to
estrange the members of the unions from the leaders they had
chosen for themselves. They have been directly incited to rebel-
lion. They have been openly urged to breaches of discipline.
What other expressions can be used when in meetings we are
told that the members ought to fight against their leaders ? " ^^

ter dated September 19, 1879 (Brief e u. Aussilge cms Brief en, etc., ed. cit.,
pp. 3,61 and 166).

"Sometimes the members of the rank and file are officially exhorted to
respect the authority of their elected representatives. In a Belgian trade-
union journal we read among the "Ten Commandments" drawn up for
the organized workers the following admonitions: "1. Be la propagande
tu feras, pour grouper les indifferents; 2. Aus assembles tu assisteras, pour
devenir intelligent; 3. Ta cotisation tu payeras, tons les mois regulierement ;
4. Bans les cabarets tu ne critiqueras, ce qui n' arrive que trap souvent"
("Journal des Correspondances, " Organe officiel des Syndicats affilies a la
Commission Syndicale, Brussels, 1905, ii. No. 9).

=* Here is a typical example. The socialist leaders of Chemnitz in Saxony
had proposed to raise the price of subscription to the local organ of the
party, but the majority of the socialist assembly of the constituency re-
jected this proposition. Here are the remarks upon the subject made by
one of the leaders: "An increase in the monthly price of subscription
by 10 pfennig would have saved the situation. But the great moment did
not find those ready to seize it. Neither the detailed report of the business
manager, Comrade Landgraf, nor yet the magnificent expositions of Com-
rades Noske and Heldt, of Zeisig and Eiemann, the members of the press
committee, and others, who in the course of many years' active work have
acquired a profound knowledge of journalistic enterprise, sufficed to con-
vince the majority of the assembly that it was absolutely essential to in-
crease the monthly subscription by 10 pfennig. The leaders had to submit
to the indignity of seeing their proposal voted down" (" Volksstimme"
of Frankfort, anno xxi. No. 37).

''Partei u. GetverTcschaften, textual reprint from the §§ P. and G. of the
Protokoll, p. 4.

224 POLITICAL PARTIES

"Whenever a new current of opposition manifests itself witMn
the party, the leaders immediately endeavour to discredit it with
the charge of demagogy. If those of the comrades who are dis-
contented with the leaders make a direct appeal to the masses,
this appeal — ^however lofty may be its motives, however sincere
the convictions of those who make it, however much they may
be justified by a reference to fundamental democratic rights —
is repudiated as inexpedient, and is even censured as a wicked
attempt to break up the party, and as the work of vulgar in-
triguers.^'' "We have to remember, in this connection, that the
leaders, who hold in their hands all the mechanism of power,
have the advantage of being able to assume an aureole of legal-
ity, whereas the masses, or the subordinate leaders who are in
rebellion, can always be placed in an unfavourable light of ille-
gality. The magic phrase with which the leaders invariably suc-
ceed in stifling embarrassing opposition in the germ is ' * the gen-
eral interest." In such circumstances they exhibit a notable
fondness for arguments drawn from the military sphere. They
maintain, for instance, that, if only for tactical reasons, and in
order to maintain a necessary cohesion in face of the enemy,
the members of the party must never refuse to repose perfect
confidence in the leaders they have freely chosen for themselves.
It is in Germany, above all, that in the trade-union organizations
the authoritarian spirit is developed with especial force, and
that the leaders are prone to attribute to their adversaries the
"criminal intention" of attempting "to dissolve trade-union
discipline. ' ' ^^ Even the socialist leaders make similar charges
against their opponents. If we translate such an accusation
from the language of the trade-union leaders into that of gov-
ernment officials, the charge becomes one of "inciting to revolt
against constituted authority." If the critics are not officials
of the party, if they are mere sympathizers or friends, they are
then in the eyes of the attacked leaders intrusive and incompe-
tent persons, without any right whatever to form an opinion on
the matter. "On no account must the faith of the people be
disturbed! Such is the principle in accordance with which all

^°Cf. pp. 171, 172.

'^At the conference of the trade-union executives, February 19 to 23,
1906, Eexhauser said : ' ' The poison which spreads in this way through the
masses corrodes everything, and when one day you want to unite for some
decisive action, you find that discipline has gone to the devil, and that
the rank and file will not obey their leaders" (ProtoTcoll, pp. 23-4).

BONAP ARTIST IDEOLOGY 225

lively criticism of the objective errors of the movement are stig-
matized as an attack on the movement itself, whilst the elements
of opposition within the party are habitually execrated as ene-
mies who wish to destroy the party. ' ' ^^

The general conduct of the leaders of democratic parties and
the phraseology typically employed by them (of which our ex-
amples might be multiplied a hundredfold) suffice to illustrate
how fatal is the transition from an authority derived from ' ' the
favour of the people " to a right based upon ' ' the grace of God ' '
— in a word, to the system which in French history we know by
the name of Bonapartism. A right of sovereignty born of the
plebiscite soon becomes a permanent and inviolable dominion.

^^Eosa Liixemburg, writing of the trade-union leaders in Massenstreik,
Partei u. GewerkscJiaften, ed. cit., p. 61.

CHAPTER III

IDENTIFICATION OF THE PARTY WITH THE LEADER
(''LE PARTI C'EST MOI")

We have shown that in their struggle against their enemies
within the party the leaders of the labour movement pursue a
tactic and adopt an attitude differing very little from those of
the "bourgeois" government in its struggle with "subversive"
elements. The terminology which the powers-that-be employ is,
mutatis mutandis, identical in the two cases. The same accusa-
tions are launched against the rebels, and the same arguments
are utilized in defence of the established order: in one case an
appeal is made for the preservation of the state ; in the other,
for that of the party. In both cases, also, there is the same
confusion of ideas when the attempt is made to define the rela-
tionships between thing and person, individual and collectivity.
The authoritarian spirit of the official representatives of the
German socialist party (a spirit which necessarily characterizes
every strong organization) exhibits several striking analogies
with the authoritarian spirit of the official representatives of
the German empire. On the one side we have William II, who
advises the "malcontents," that is to say those of his subjects
who do not consider that all is for the best in the best of all
possible empires, to shake the dust off their feet and go else-
where. On the other side we have Bebel, exclaiming that it is
time to have done once for all with the eternal discontents and
sowings of discord within the party, and expressing the opinion
that the opposition, if it is unable to express itself as satisfied
with the conduct of affairs by the executive, had better "clear
out. ' ' ^ Between these two attitudes, can we find any difference
other than that which separates a voluntary organization (the
party), to which one is free to adhere or not as one pleases,
from a coercive organization (the state), to which all must be-
long by the fact of birth ? ^

* Au^st Bebel, speech to the Dresden congress, Protolcoll, p. 308.
''In the text, the writer has repeatedly mentioned the name of Bebel

226

LE PARTI C'EST MOI 227

It may perhaps be said that there is not a single party leader
who fails to think and to act, and who, if he has a lively tempera-
ment and a frank character, fails to speak, after the example of
Le Roi Soleil, and to say Le Parti c'est moi.^

when he has wished to illustrate by typical examples the conduct of the
leaders towards the masses. Yet it would be erroneous to regard Bebel
as a typical leader. He was raised above the average of leaders, not only
by his great intellectual gifts, but also by his profound sincerity, the out-
come of a strong and healthy temperament, which often led him to say
things openly which others would have left unsaid and to do things openly
which others would have left concealed. It was for this reason that
"Kaiser Bebel" was frequently exposed to the suspicion of being excep-
tionally autocratic in his conduct and undemocratic in his sentiments.
Nevertheless, a thorough analysis of Bebel 's character and of his conduct
on various memorable occasions would establish that, side by side with a
marked tendency to self-assertion and a taste for the intrinsic forms of
rule, he exhibited strong democratic leanings, which distinguished him
from the average of his colleagues, just as much as he was distinguished
from them by the frankness with which he always displayed his dictatorial
temperament. This is not the place for such an analysis, but the writer felt
it was necessary to guard against a false interpretation of his references
to Bebel by a brief allusion to the complexity of character of this re-
markable man. In ultimate analysis, Bebel was no more than a represen-
tative of his party, but he was one in whom the individual note was never
suppressed by the exigencies of leadership or of demagogy.

^We learn this from a study of all the great party leaders. As regards
Marx, ef. Michels, Storia del Marxismo in Italia, Bocca, Turin, 1909, pp.
19 et seq. — As regards Lassalle, cf. Julius Vahlteich, Ferdinand Lassalle,
ed. cit., pp. 42 et seq. — Liebknecht's ofi&cial biographer tells us that he
was not always able, owing to his strong and lively individuality, to dis-
tinguish between persons and things (Kurt Eisner, Wilhelm Lieblcnecht,
"Vorwarts," Berlin, 1906, 2nd ed., p. 100).— Of Bebel, von Gerlach, one
of his admirers, wrote: "He lives only for the party, identifying himself
fully with the party. This is his strength, but often also it is his weakness.
Just as Bismarck regarded every attack upon Bismarck as an attack upon
the well-being of the German empire, so Bebel sees in every attack upon
Bebel an attack upon the party interests. Thus his intervention is ex-
traordinarily weighty, but often it is extremely unjust. Very rarely has
he been fair to his opponents, and least of all to his opponents within the
party. . . . He always regards himself as the guardian of the party in-
terests, and his personal adversaries as the enemies of the party. Hia
subjectivity is really terrible" (Helmuth von Gerlach, August Beiel. Ein
Mographisclie Essay, Albert Langen, Munich, 1909, pp. 59, 60). Cf. also
the speech against Bebel delivered by Vollmar at the Dresden congress,
1903 (ProtoTcoll, pp. 321 et seq.). — VoUmar's speech reminds us of Zi-
bordi's bitter criticism of Enrico Ferri: "This man speaks of himself,
of himself, of himself; of his mother, his wife, his children, always with
reference to himself; of his own talents, of his own career, of his enemies,
of his forecastsj of his goodness, of his health. The workers, socialism.

228 POLITICAL PARTIES

The bureaucrat identifies himself completely with the organi-
zation, confounding his own interests with its interests. All
objective criticism of the party is taken by him as a personal
affront. This is the cause of the obvious incapacity of all party
leaders to take a serene and just view of hostile criticism.* The
leader declares himself personally offended, doing this partly in
good faith, but in part deliberately, in order to shift the battle-
ground, so that he can present himself as the harmless object of
an unwarrantable attack, and arouse in the minds of the masses
towards his opponents in matters of theory that antipathy which
is always felt for those whose actions are dictated by personal
rancour.^ If, on the other hand, the leader is attacked per-
sonally, his first care is to make it appear that the attack is di-
rected against the party as a whole. He does this not only on
diplomatic grounds, in order to secure for himself the support
of the party and to overwhelm the aggressor with the weight of
numbers, but also because he quite ingenuously takes the part

proletarian polities, the nation, are always discussed by him as centering
in his own personality" (G. Zibordi, La "Tournee" oratoria di E. Ferri,
"Secolo," April 25, 1911). Yet this way of speaking must not be at-
tributed to personal vanity; it is rather the inevitable consequence of
Ferri 's absolute conviction of his sovereign power over the masses.

* Here are typical examples. The leaders of the Italian socialists in the
early part of 1870, well-to-do idealists ready for sacrifice and for martyr-
dom, derived for the most part from the upper bourgeois and aristocratic
circles, were described by Marx as a crowd of rascally students seeking
careers in the International. The reason for this outburst of spleen was
that the Italians had without exception supported Bakunin and opposed
Marx (cf. E. Michels, Froletariato e Borghesia, ed. cit., pp. 63-76). Engels,
again, speaking of the opposition within the party, of the group known as
die Jungen, to which Hans Miiller, Paul Ernst, Bruno Wille, Paul
Kampffmeyer, O. E. Hartleben, etc., belonged, qualified them in the fol-
lowing terms: "Unquestionably there are some among them in the pay
of the police; others are masked anarchists who wish to make recruits
from among our ranks; the rest are blockheads, students swollen with con-
ceit, would-be candidates, and self-seekers of all kinds" {Brief e u. Aus-
siige, ed. cit., p. 370).

^ In a polemic against the Marxists of the party, the trade-union leader
H. Jochade writes : * * We have to ask ourselves seriously what is the mean-
ing of this new campaign. Is it dictated by the love of scandal, by the
excess of zeal of a few quill-drivers, or have malice and cunning anything
to do with the matter? There can be no doubt that all these influences are
at work in originating the attack upon the trade-union employees" (Krieg
gegen die Gewerlcschaftsbeamten, " Korrespondenzblatt der Generalkom-
mission der Gewerkschaften Deutschlands, " anno xviii, No. 51, December
19, 1908, p. 810).

LE PARTI C'EST MOI 229

for the whole. This is frequently the outcome, not merely of
blind fanaticism, but of firm conviction. According to Netcha-
jeff, the revolutionary has the right of exploiting, deceiving,
robbing, and in ease of need utterly ruining, all those who do
not agree unconditionally with his methods and his aims, for
he need consider them as nothing more than chair a conspiration.
His sole objective must be to ensure the triumph of his essen-
tially individual ideas, without any respect for persons — La
Revolution c'est moi! Bakunin uttered a sound criticism of this
mode of reasoning when he said that its hidden source was to
be found in Netchajeff 's unconscious but detestable ambition.®
\, The despotism of the leaders does not arise solely from a vul- ' "^
gar lust of power or from uncontrolled egoism, but is often the
outcome of a profound and sincere conviction of their own value
and of the services which they have rendered to the common
cause. The bureaucracy which is most faithful and most effi-
cient in the discharge of its duties is also the most dictatorial. (
To quote Wolfgang Heine: ''The objection is invalid that the
incorruptibility and efficiency of our party officials, and their
love for the great cause, would suffice to raise a barrier against
the development of autocracy within the party. The very op-
posite is true. Officials of high technical efficiency who unself-
ishly aim at the general good, like those whom we are fortunate
enough to possess in the party, are more than all others inclined,
being well aware of the importance of their own services, to
regard as inalterable laws whatever seems to them right and
proper, to suppress conflicting tendencies on the ground of the
general interest, and thus to impose restraints upon the healthy
progress of the party. ' ' ^ Similarly, where we have to do with
excellent and incorruptible state officials like those of the Ger-
man empire, the megalomaniac substitution of thing for person
is partly due to the upright consciences of the officials and to
their great devotion to duty.^ Among the members of such a

"James Guillaume, L' Internationale, ed. cit., vol. ii, p. 62.

^W. Heine, DemoTcratisclie BandbemerJcu7igen sum Fall GoJire, "Soz.
Monatsh., " viii (x), fasc. iv, p. 284.

* ' * The [Prussian] state tends to become a republic of official employees,
in which the employees are the only fully qualified citizens, whilst all oth-
ers, notwithstanding the apparent possession of constitutional rights, exist
simply in order to be ruled and to provide the cost of working the govern-
mental machine. The danger is not lessened by the fact that the bureau-
cracy does not merely make a profession of working for the general good,
but is honestly convinced that it is endeavouring to secure it. Every official

230 POLITICAL PARTIES

bureaucracy, there is hardly one who does not feel that a pin-
prick directed against his own person is a crime committed
against the whole state. It is for the same reason that they all
hold together comme les doigts de la main. Each one of them
regards himself as an impersonation of a portion of the whole
state, and feels that this portion will suffer if the authority of
any other portion is impaired.^ Further, the bureaucrat is apt
to imagine that he knows the needs of the masses better than
these do themselves,^" an opinion which may be sound enough in
individual instances, but which for the most part is no more
than a form of megalomania. Undoubtedly the party official is
less exposed than the state official to the danger of becoming
fossilized, for in most cases he has work as a public speaker, and
in this way he maintains a certain degree of contact with the
masses. On the other hand, the applause which he seeks and
receives on these occasions cannot fail to stimulate his personal
vanity.

When in any organization the oligarchy has attained an ad-
vanced stage of development, the leaders begin to identify with
themselves, not merely the party institutions, but even the party
property, this phenomenon being common both to the party and
to the state. In the conflict between the leaders and the rank
and file of the German trade unions regarding the right to strike,
the leaders have more than once maintained that the decision
in this matter is morally and legally reserved for themselves,
because it is they who provide the financial resources which en-
able the workers to remain on strike .^^ This view is no more
than the ultimate consequence of that oligarchical mode of
thought which inevitably leads to a complete forgetfulness of
true democratic principles. In Genoa, one of the labour leaders,
whose influence had increased pari passu with the growing
strength of the organized proletariat of the city, and who, en-

who seeks to maintain his own power persuades himself that he does this
for the benefit of the ruled" (W. Heine, Die Beamten Eepublilc, "Marz,"
anno iii, fasc. 21, p. 175).

*Edmond About, Le Progres, Hachette, Paris, 1864, p. 232.

" Max Weber, for instance, in a discussion upon municipal enterprise at
the Vienna congress of the Verein fiir Sozialpolitik declared: "I should
think myself a very poor bureaucrat indeed, if I did not believe myself to
know better than these blockheads what is really good for them" (Pro-
toTcoll, p. 285).

"Cf. " Korrespondenzblatt der Gewerkschaften Deutschlands, " anno vii,
No. 28.

LE PARTI C'EST MOI 231

joying the unrestricted confidence of his comrades, had acquired
the most various powers and had filled numerous positions in
the party, regarded himself as justified, when as a representa-
tive of the workers he made contracts with capitalists and con-
cluded similar affairs, in feathering his own nest in addition to
looking after the workers' interests.^^

" This was the barrister, Gino Murialdi, who in youth had made many
sacrifices for the movement. He was in receipt of a re^lar salary from
the trade unions and cooperative societies, but this did not prevent him
from accepting money from the employers when he was negotiating with
them as the workers' representative. When taken to task on this account,
he said that by his exertions he had obtained such brilliant advantages for
the workers, that he saw no reason why he should not secure for himself
a little extra profit at the cost of the employers. Murialdi 's actions led
to a violent quarrel between him and the other leaders in Genoa, and ul-
timately caused his expulsion from the socialist party. Cf . ' ' Avanti, ' ' anno
xiii (1909), Nos. 1 and 24.

PART FOUE
SOCIAL ANALYSIS OF LEADERSHIP

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY. THE CLASS STRUGGLE AND ITS

DISINTEGRATING INFLUENCE UPON THE

BOURGEOISIE

V The masses are not easily stirred. Great events pass before
their eyes and revolutions are accomplished in economic life
without their minds' undergoing profound modifications. Very
slowly do they react to the influence of new conditions.

For decades, and even for centuries, the masses continue to
endure passively outworn political conditions which greatly im-
pede legal and moral progress.^ Countries which from the eco-
nomic point of view are fairly well advanced, often continue to
endure for lengthy periods a political and constitutional regime
which derives from an earlier economic phase. This is espe-
cially noteworthy in Germany, where an aristocratic and feudal
form of government, the outcome of economic conditions which
the country has outlived, has not yet been able to adapt itself
to an economic development of the most advanced capitalist
character.

These historical phenomena, which at first sight appear para-
doxical, arise from causes of two different orders. In the first
place it may happen that classes or sub-classes representing an
extinct economic form may survive from a time in which they
were the authentic exponents of the then dominant economic re-
lationships ; they have been able to save from the wreck a suffi-
ciency of moral prestige and effective political force to maintain
their dominion in the new phase of economic and civil develop-
ment, and to do this even in opposition to the expressed will of
the majority of the people. These classes succeed in maintain-

^ " Unreflectingly, sometimes with a sigh, but often without a thought
of the possibility of better things, the nations have borne for centuries, and
continue to bear, all the burdens and all the shames imposed upon them
by tyranny, like the lower animals, who with satisfaction and even grati-
tude accept a bare subsistence, from the hand of the master to whom they
belong, and who makes use of them and chastises them at his will" (Carl
von Eotteck, Allgemeine GeschicMe, etc., ed. cit., p. 81).

235

236 POLITICAL PAHTIES

ing themselves in power by the strength of their own political
energy and with the assistance of numerous elements essentially
foreign to themselves, but which they can turn to their own ad-
vantage by suggestive influences. JMost commonly, however, we
find that the classes representing a past economic order continue
to maintain their social predominance only because the classes
representing the present or future economy have as yet failed
to become aware of their strength, of their political and eco-
nomic importance, and of the wrongs which they suffer at the
hands of society. ; Moreover, a sense of fatalism and a sad con-
viction of impotence exercise a paralysing influence in social life.
As long as an oppressed class is influenced by this fatalistic
spirit, as long as it has failed to develop an adequate sense of
social injustice, it is incapable of aspiring towards emancipation.
It is not the simple existence of oppressive conditions, but it is
the recognition of these conditions hy the oppressed, which in
the course of history has constituted the prime factor of class
struggles.^

The mere existence of the modern proletariat does not suffice
per se to produce a "social problem." The class struggle, if it
is not to remain a nebulous theory, in which the energy is for
ever latent, requires to be animated by class consciousness.

It is the involuntary work of the bourgeoisie to arouse in the
proletariat that class consciousness which is necessarily directed
against the bourgeoisie itself. History is full of such ironies.
It is the tragical destiny of the bourgeoisie to be instructor of
the class which from the economic and social point of view is
its own deadly enemy. As Karl Marx showed in his Commu7iist
Manifesto, the principal reason for this is found in the unceas-
ing struggle which the bourgeoisie is forced to carry on "at once
with the aristocracy, with those sections of its own class whose
interests are opposed to industrial progress, and with the bour-
geoisie of all foreign countries," Unable to carry on this strug-
gle effectively by its own unaided powers, the bourgeoisie is
continually forced "to appeal to the proletariat, to demand its
aid, and thus to launch the proletariat into the political melee,
thus putting into the hands of the proletariat a weapon which

' This is now generally recognized, as, for instance, even by so guarded
a writer as Johannes Conrad in his Grundriss zum Studium der politischen
Oekonomie, Part II; VolkswirtschaftspoUtik, Fischer, Jena, 1898, 2nd ed.,
p. 48,

THE CLASS STRUGGLE 237

the latter will turn against the bourgeoisie itself.' Under yet
another aspect the bourgeoisie appears as the instructor, as the
fencing-master of the working class. Through its daily contact
with the proletariat there results the detachment from its own
body of a small number of persons who devote their energies to
the service of the working classes, in order to inflame these for
the struggle against the existing order, to make them feel and
understand the deficiencies of the prevailing economic and social
regime. It is true that the number of those who are detached
from the bourgeoisie to adhere to the cause of the proletariat is
never great. But those who thus devote themselves are among
the best of the bourgeoisie ; they may, in a sense, be regarded as
supermen, raised above the average of their class, it may be by
love of their neighbours, it may be by compassion, it may be by
moral indignation against social injustice or by a profound the-
oretical understanding of the forces at work in society, or,
finally, by a greater energy and logical coherence in the transla-
tion of their principles into practice. In any case, they are ex-
ceptional individualities, these bourgeois who, deserting the class
in which they were born, give a deliberate direction to the in-
stincts still slumbering in the proletariat, and thus hasten the
emancipation of the proletarian class as a whole.

The proletarian mass is at first aware by instinct alone of the
oppression by which it is burdened, for it entirely lacks the in-
struction which might give a clue to the understanding of that
historical process which is in appearance so confused and laby-
rinthine. It would seem to be a psychologico-historical law that
any class which has been enervated and led to despair in itself
through prolonged lack of education and through deprivation of
political rights, cannot attain to the possibility of energetic ac-
tion until it has received instruction concerning its ethical rights
and politico-economical powers, not alone from members of its
own class, but also from those who belong to what in vulgar par-
lance are termed a ''higher" class. Great class-movements have
hitherto been initiated in history solely by the simple reflection :
it is not we alone, belonging to the masses without education and
without legal rights, who believe ourselves to be oppressed, but
that belief as to our condition is shared by those who have a
better knowledge of the social mechanism and who are therefore

'Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto, "Vorwarts," Berlin, 1901, 6tli
ed., p. 16.

238 POLITICAL PARTIES

better able to judge; since the cultured people of the upper
classes have also conceived the ideal of our emancipation, that
ideal is not a mere chimera.^

The socialist theory has arisen out of the reflections of philos-
ophers, economists, sociologists, and historians. In the socialist
programmes of the different countries, every word represents a
synthesis of the work of numerous learned men.° The fathers
of modern socialism were with few exceptions men of science
primarily, and in the second place only were they politicians in
the strict sense of the term. It is true that before the days of
such men there were spontaneous proletarian movements initi-
ated by an instinctive aspiration towards a higher intellectual
and economic standard of life. But these movements manifest
themselves rather as the mechanical outcome of an unreflecting
though legitimate discontent, than as the consequence of a genu-
ine sentiment of revolt inspired by a clear consciousness of op-
pression. It was only when science placed itself at the service
of the working class that the proletarian movement became
transformed into a socialist movement, and that instinctive, un-
conscious, and aimless rebellion was replaced by conscious as-
piration, comparatively clear, and strictly directed towards a
well-defined end.

Similar phenomena are apparent in all earlier class struggles.
Every great class-movement in history has arisen upon the insti-
gation, with the co-operation, and under the leadership of men
sprung from the very class against which the movement was di-
rected. Spartacus, who urged the slaves to revolt on behalf of
their freedom, was, it is true, of servile origin, but he was a
freedman, a Thracian property-owner. Thomas Miinzer, to
whose agitation the Thuringian Peasants' War was largely due,

*This sequence of ideas is so obvious that its recognition has been gen-
eral. Otto von Leixner, for instance, notwithstanding the superficiality of
his studies, refers to it in his psychological sketches upon the labour move-
ment in Berlin. (Cf. Sosiale Brief e aus Berlin, 1888-91, Pfeilstiicker, Ber-
lin, 1891, p. 147.)

^ This is admitted even by the opponents of socialism. Oldenberg, for
instance, writes: "From the historical point of view, socialism is an ideal-
ist fantasy, mechanically transplanted into the heads of the proletarian
masses from the highest spheres of philosophical and scientific thought.
It is from the outset a misalliance, described by Lassalle as 'the alliance
between science and the workers' " (Karl Oldenberg, Die Ziele der
deutschen SozialdemoTcratie in Evangelisch-sosiale Zeitfragen, Grunow,
Leipzig, 1891, p. 58).

THE CLASS STRUGGLE 239

was not a peasant but a man of learning. Florian Geier was a
knight. The most distinguished leaders of the movement for the
emancipation of the tiers etat at the outset of the French Revolu-
tion, Lafayette^ Mirabeau, Roland, and Sieyes, belonged to the
privileged classes, and Philippe-Egalite, the regicide, was even
a member of the royal house. The history of the modern labour
movement furnishes no exception to this rule. When the Ger-
man historian, Theodor Lindner, affirms ^ that the contemporary
socialist movement is always "called to life" by non-workers^, we
must indeed criticize the statement, which recalls to our mind
the working of the necromancer's magic wand: "Let there be
a labour movement ! And there was a labour movement. ' ' Lind-
ner's statement is likewise inexact and incomplete, because it
fails to recognize that this "calling to life" cannot produce
something out of nothing, and that it cannot be the work of one
of those famous "great men" whom a certain school of his-
torians make the corner-stone of their theory of historical causa-
tion— for the coming into existence of the labour movement
necessarily presupposes a given degree of social and economic
development, without which no movement can be initiated. But
Lindner's view, though badly formulated, is to this extent true,
that the heralds of the modern labour movement are chiefly de-
rived from the ' ' cultured classes. ' ' ^ The great precursors of
political socialism and leading representatives of philosophical
socialism, Saint-Simon, Fourier, and Owen; the founders of
political socialism^, Louis Blanc, Blanqui, and Lassalle; the
fathers of economic and scientific socialism, Marx, Engels, and
Rodbertus, were all bourgeois intellectuals. Of comparatively
trifling importance in the international field, alike in respect of
theory and of practice, were Wilhelm Weitling, the tailor's ap-
prentice, and Pierre Leroux, the self-taught philosopher. It is
only Proudhon, the working printer, a solitary figure, who at-
tains to a position of superb grandeur in this field. Even among
the great orators who during recent years have been devoted to
the cause of labour, ex-bourgeois constitute the great majority,
while men of working-class origin are altogether exceptional.
Pages could be filled with the names of leading socialist politi-

« Theodor Lindner, GeschichtspMlosophie, Cotta, Stuttgart, 1904, 2nd ed.,
p. 132.

' This was pointed out by Heinrich von Sybel as long ago as 1872. Cf.
Die Lehren des heutigen Sosialismus u. Kommunismus, M. Cohen, Bonn,
1872, p. 91.

240 POLITICAL PARTIES

cians sprung from the bo-urgeoisie, whereas in a single breath we
could complete the list of political leaders of truly working-class
origin whose names will be immortalized in the history of their
class. We have Benoit Malon, August Bebel, and Eduard An-
seele; but not one of these, although they are great practical
leaders of the working class and potent organizers, is numbered
among the creative theorists of socialism.

The presence of bourgeois elements in the proletarian move-
ment organized to form a political party is a historical fact, and
one which may be noted wherever the political movement of the
international working class is attentively observed.^ This phe-
nomenon reproduces itself wherever the socialist tree throws out
new branches^ as may be seen, for example, in Japan and Brazil.^

Moreover, this phenomenon must be considered as a logical
consequence of historical evolution. Nay more, it has been

*Iii studies relating to individual countries this has been made almost
everywhere apparent. Eegarding Italy, cf. Michels, Proletariato e Borglie-
sia nel Movimento Socialista Italiano, ed. cit., pp. 19-118. Eegarding Eng-
land, ef. Eduard Bernstein, Die Arieiterbewegung, ed. cit., p. 144; W. E.
H. Lecky, Democracy and Liberty, Longmans, London, 1899, vol. ii, p. 370.
Regarding Russia, cf. Eine geJieime Benkschrift uber die nihilistischen
Umtriebe vom Jahre 1875, compiled from the official reports of the Russian
Minister of Justice, Count von der Pahlen, "Deutsche Rundschau," anno
vii (1881), fasc. 9; and from the revolutionary side, BericM an den Inter-
nationalen SosialistiscJien Congress in Paris, 1900, Veber die russische
SosialdemoTcratische Beivegung, Geschrieben im Auftrage des Bundes rus-
sischer SosialdemoJcraten von der Bedalotion der Babotscheje Djelo, by Boris
Kricewski, in which we are told that "the propagandist group of the Rus-
sian social democracy during the years 1890-5 consisted almost exclusively
of intellectuals (p. 5). Regarding France, Mermeix, La France socialists.
Notes d'un Contemporain, Fetseherin and Chuit, Paris, 1886, 3rd ed., p. 52.
In Holland, the bourgeois elements in the socialist party are so numerous,
that the adversaries of socialism have taken advantage of the fact to
coin a nickname for the party. Its official name is Sociaal-Demokratische
Arbeiders Partij, known for short as S.D.A.P. In the nickname, the ini-
tials are expanded into Studenten Dominees en Advokaten Partij. (Cf,
Schaper, Op. de Bres. Alfabetisch StrijdscJirift voor de Sociaal-Demo-
Tcratie, Stuffers, The Hague, 1905, p. 23.)

^Regarding the origin of socialism in Japan, see the study by Gustav
Eckstein, Die Arbeiterbewegung im modernen Japan, "Neue Zeit," anno
xxii, vol. i, pp. 667 et seq. — In Brazil, at the second congress of the So-
cialist Workers of Brazil held at Sao Paulo in 1902, where the party first
became firmly organized and established its programme, of the seven per-
sons constituting the party executive, no less than three bore the title of
"Doctor." (Cf. Paul Lobe, Die sosialistische Partei Brasiliens, "Neue
Zeit," anno xx, vol. ii, p. 529.) As far as the writer is aware, the two
members of the executive of Italian origin were also intellectuals.

THE CLASS STRUGGLE 241

shown that not merely the presence of ex-bourgeois in the party
of the fighting proletariat, but further the leading role which
these play in the movement for proletarian enfranchisement, is
the outcome of historical necessity.

The question might arise, and it has in fact been mooted,
whether the presence of a large number of bourgeois refugees
among the proletarian militants does not give the lie to the the-
ory of the class struggle. In other words, we have to ask whether
the desired future social order in which all class distinctions are
to be abolished (for this is the common aim, more or less dis-
tinctly formulated, of all socialists and other advanced reform-
ers, ethical culturists, anarchists, neo-Christians, etc.) may not
come to be realized by a gradual psychical transformation of the
bourgeoisie, which will become increasingly aware of the injus-
tice of its peculiar economic and social privileges. This consid-
eration naturally leads us to ask whether the sharp line of cleav-
age which exists on the political field between class-parties rep-
resenting class-interests is really necessary, or whether it is not
a sort of cruel sport, and therefore useless and injurious. Eu-
dolph Penzig, editor of ' ' Ethische Kultur, " in a controversy with
the present writer, went so far as to claim that the deserters
from the bourgeoisie to the socialist ranks were "precursors."^"
Now this expression logically involves the belief that these bour-
geois pioneers will be followed by the whole mass of the bour-
geoisie, who will thus come over to the camp of those who eco-
nomically and socially are their moral enemies. We might be
inclined to speak of this as a theory of hara-kiri, did we not
know that hara-kiri is not usually practised as a deliberate vol-
untary act, but is effected in obedience to orders from above, to
coercion from without. Let us briefly examine the soundness of
the theory in question.

The socialist poet Edmondo de Amicis enumerates the factors
which he regards as working most effectively for the ultimate vic-
tory of socialism. There is the general sense of weariness which,
in his opinion, follows a great industrial crisis, and the utter
disgust felt by the possessing classes with the unending strug-
gle ; there is the anxiety felt by these sam.e classes to avoid at
all costs a revolution in which they are destined to perish mis-
erably, overcome by fire and sword ; there is, finally, the indefi-

"Eudolph Penzig, Die TJnvernunft des Klassenlampfes, written in an-
swer to K. Michels, Endziel, Intransigens, Eihik, "Ethische Kultur," De-
cember 26, 1903, xii, No. 52.

242 POLITICAL PARTIES

nite need, with which the bourgeoisie is also affected, for rejuve-
nation and idealism, and for avoiding "the horror of living amid
the ruins of an expiring world. "^^ A similar train of thought
was expressed fifty years earlier by Heinrich Heine, who lacked
to make him a fighter for socialism merely the courage to give
open expression to his political ideas. In his letters from Paris
upon politics, art, and national life he writes, under date June
15, 1843: "I wish here to draw especial attention to the point
that for communism it is an incalculable advantage that the en-
emy against which the communists contend has, despite all his
power, no firm moral standing. Modern society defends itself
simply because it must do so, without any belief in its own
rights, and even without any self-respect, just like that ancient

society which crumbled to ruin at the coming of the carpenter's
son." 12

In many respects, the views of these two poets may be ac-
cepted. And yet it seems more than questionable whether a dy-
ing bourgeois society would not defend itself to the last, and
endeavour to maintain by force of arms, if need be, its property
and its prerogatives, however greatly these might be undermined
and threatened, in the hope that the final victory of the prole-
tariat might at least be postponed. Unquestionably, too, Heine 's
opinion in 1843 that in the bourgeoisie of his day there was a
widespread lack of confidence, is open to criticism, seeing that,
as we all know, the bourgeois resistance is to this day animated
by a vigorous belief in his own rectitude. But the fundamental
thought of de Amicis and Heine is so far sound, in that a society
which lacks a lively faith in its own rights is already in its
political death-agony. A capacity for the tough and persevering
defence of privilege presupposes in the privileged class the ex-
istence of certain qualities, and in especial of a relentless energy,
which might thrive, indeed, in association with cruelty and un-
conscientiousness, but which is enormously more prosperous if
based upon a vigorous faith in its own rectitude. As Pareto has
said,^^ the permeation of a dominant class by humanitarian
ideas, which lead that class to doubt its own moral right to exist-
ence, demoralizes its members and makes them inapt for defence.

The same law operates likewise where men are absolutely con-

"Edmondo de Amicis, Lotte civili, Nerbini, Florence, 1899, p. 294.
"Heinrich Heine, Lutetia in Sdmtliche WerTce, Hoffmann u. Kampe,
Hamburg, 1890, x, p. 93.
13 Vilf redo Pareto, Les Systemes socialistes, ed. cit., vol. i, pp. 37 and 57.

THE CLASS STRUGGLE 243

vinced of their sacred right to existence. It is equally valid of
national aggregates. "Where a nation lacks the sense of such a
right, decadence and ruin inevitably ensue. We may regard it
as an established historical law that races, legal systems, institu-
tions, and social classes, are inevitably doomed to destruction
from the moment they or those who represent them have lost
faith in their own future. The Poles, widely dispersed, and dis-
membered among three separate powers, have preserved their
nationality and their faith in themselves and in their rights. No
power in the world, not to mention the Prusso-Eussian micro-
cosm, can annihilate the Polish people whilst their brains still
cherish the consciousness of their right to national existence.
The Wends, on the other hand, a Slav people like the Poles,
owing to the nature of the historical epoch in which they were
subdued and to the peculiar circumstances under which this
historical occurrence took place, did not succeed in retaining in-
tact the consciousness of their national existence — if they ever
possessed one. Even where, as in the Spreewald, they have re-
tained their language, they have been thoroughly absorbed into
the German system, and are in our day, as Wends, completely
expunged from the history of civilization. Although they in-
habit quite a large area of Germany, they have in many cases
so utterly lost all sense of their Slav origin as to have become
the most ardent Pan-Germanists, although they are in reality
Germans only in virtue of the legal fiction of the state and of
the customs and speech which have been imposed upon them by
their ancient conquerors.

No social struggle in history has ever been permanently won
unless the vanquished has as a preliminary measure been mor-
ally weakened. The French Eevolution was rendered possible
only because the ardent pre-revolutionary writers, Voltaire,
D'Alembert, Rousseau, Holbach, Diderot, etc., who made so
plainly manifest the "immorality" of the economic privileges
possessed by the ruling classes of the old regime, had already
demoralized (in the psychological sense of the word) a conspic-
uous portion of the nobility and the clergy. Louis Blanc re-
marked, apropos of the French Revolution : ' ' Sortie vibrante de
I'Encyclopedie, ce grand laboratoire des idees du XVIIP siecle,
elle n'avait plus en 1789, qu'a prendre materiellement possession
d'un domaine deja conquis moralement. " ^^ The unification of

"Louis Blanc, Organisation du Travail, Camille, Paris, 1845, 4th ed., p.
xiii.

244 POLITICAL PARTIES

Italy, previously broken up into seven states, was effected with,
a minimal shedding of blood (if we except the deaths that re-
sulted in the struggle against foreigners), and after the founda-
tion of the kingdom there was hardly a single inhabitant of the
peninsula who shed any tears over the fate of the fallen dy-
nasties, this attitude of mind forming a strong contrast to what
happened in Germany in the corresponding historical period.
The reason for the difference was that in Italy the unification of
minds had long preceded the unification of administration.^^ In
the war of secession in the United States of America, it was not
merely the armed strength of the Northern states which decided
the issue, but also the consciousness of moral error which to-
wards the end of the war began to spread among a large number
of the slave-owners of the Southern states.^^ Examples of this
nature could be multiplied at will.

The aim of agitation is to shake the opponent's self-confidence,
to convince adversaries of the higher validity of our own argu-
ments. Socialism can least of all afford to underrate the enor-
mous force of rhetoric, the compelling power of persuasion, for
it is to these means that socialism owes its great successes. But
the force of persuasion has a natural limit imposed by social
relationships. Where it is used to influence the convictions of
the popular masses or of social classes to induce them to take
part in a movement which is directed towards their own libera-
tion, it is easy, under normal conditions, to attain to positive
results. But attempts at persuasion fail miserably, as we learn
again and again from the history of social struggles, when they
are addressed to privileged classes, in order to induce these to

" In the Pontifical State, even in the last years of its existence, a peti-
tion of the Jewish community against the severity of the taxation imposed
upon them was rejected on the express ground that the Jews deserved to
be specially taxed because they had killed the Saviour of mankind. At
popular festivals the Jews had to furnish a pig, which for the enjoyment
of the people was rolled down from the Testaccio; until Clement IX gra-
ciously modified the observance, it had been a Jew and not a pig! Not-
withstanding these practices, which bear witness to the contempt felt for
the Jews, the Eomans, immediately after the incorporation of the Pontif-
ical State into the kingdom of Italy, elected a considerable number of
their Jewish fellow-citizens as municipal councillors, provincial councillors,
and parliamentary deputies. ' ' The revolution which had taken place in
opinion was sufiicient to remove all obstacles" (Aristide Gabelii, Soma e i
Bomani, "Nuova Antologia," anno xvi, p. 420).

^° Woodrow Wilson, A History of the American People, Harper, New
York and London, 1903, vol. iv, p. 311.

BOURGEOISIE AND CLASS STRUGGLE 245

abandon, to their own disadvantage, as a class and as individ-
uals, the leading positions they occupy in society.

The individual human being is not an economic automaton.
His life consists of a perennial conflict between his financial
needs and the interests which bind him to a given class or caste,
on the one hand, and, on the other, those tendencies which are
outside class considerations, outside the orbit of social struggles,
and which may arouse in his mind passions capable of diverting
him from a purely economic path, attracting him within the
sphere of influence of some ideal sun, leading him to act in
ways more consonant with his own individual character. But all
this applies only to the individual human being. The mass, if
we leave out of consideration certain pathological influences to
which it is exposed, and which may lead its members into ac-
tivities conflicting with purely material advantage, is unques-
tionably an economic automaton. The common manifestations
of its members are stamped with the seal of the economic inter-
ests of the mass, just as the individual sheep of a flock bear the
mark of their owner. Consequently the seal need not necessarily
be useful to the individual who bears it, nor correspondent with
his ends; any more than is the imprint upon the back of the
sheep, which often consigns the animal to slaughter. But in the
human herd the economic imprint extends its influence into the
physical life. The kind of work and of interests imposed by
economic conditions makes spirit and body alike dependent on
occupation.

It is doubtless true that the socialist doctrine has won over
many children of bourgeois families, penetrating their minds so
profoundly as to lead them to abandon everything else — ^to leave
father and mother, friends and relatives, social position and re-
spect. "Without regret and without hesitation they have conse-
crated their lives to the emancipation of humanity as conceived
by socialism. But we have here to do with isolated instances
only, and not with compact groups representing an entire eco-
nomic class. The class to which the deserters belong is no wise
weakened by the desertion. A class considered as a whole never
spontaneously surrenders its position of advantage. It never
recognizes any moral reason sufficiently powerful to compel it
to abdicate in favour of its ''poorer brethren." Such action is
prevented, if by nothing else, by class egoism,^^ a natural attri-

"From class egoism arises the only form of solidarity ktiowii to us in

246 POLITICAL PARTIES

bute of the proletarian as of other social classes, with the dif-
ference that, in the case of the proletariat, class egoism comes
in ultimate analysis to coincide — in abstracto, at least — with the
ideal of a humanity knowing nothing of classes.^® It will not be
denied that in the various strata of the dominant and possessing
classes there are considerable differences in the extent to which
this class egoism is developed. There are certain representatives
of landed property, and above all the Prussian junkers, who
bluntly declare even to-day that we should treat as criminals or
lunatics all who claim political, economic, or social rights by
which their own class-privileges are endangered. There are
other classes in modern society less hostile to reforms and less
crassly egoistic than the numerically small class of the Prussian
junkers; but these too are not accessible to considerations of
social justice, except in so far as no sensible injury is offered
to their instinctive class-interests.^^ The proletariat is therefore

addition to the coercive (that of the state, the army, etc.). Collective life
arises only out of the need for defence against common enemies. (Cf.
Michels, La Solidarite en Allemagne, a report to the International Congress
of Sociology held at Berne, August, 1909, and published in "Annales de
I'Institut International de Sociologie, " Giard et Briere, Paris, 1910, vol.
xu.) — ^At the same time it is unquestionable that with increasing class con-
sciousness the social sentiment becomes narrowed in all classes, and that
the morality of conduct towards the members of other classes diminishes,
whilst morality towards other members of the same class is enhanced. This
was pointed out quite recently by one of the Dutch socialists, amid storms
of dissent from bourgeois and even from socialist moralists (Herman
Gorter, Het Historisch Materialisme, Voor ArT) eiders verJclaard, "De Tri-
bune," Amsterdam, 1909, p. 72).

""AH earlier classes which attained to dominion endeavoured to secure
the position they had conquered by subjecting the whole of society to the
conditions of their system of exploitation. The proletariat, on the other
hand, can effect a conquest of the social productive forces only by abol-
ishing the existing mode of appropriation and therewith all previously
existing modes of appropriation. Proletarians have no property of their
own to safeguard" (Mars, Communist Manifesto, ed. cit., p. 17).

*' It is by this that firm and unalterable limits are imposed upon so-called
social reforms. The Prussian conservatives, constituting the party of the
great landed proprietors, favoured laws for the protection of the workers
until they perceived that an increase in the number of manufacturing oper-
atives was leading to a dearth of labour in the rural districts. Thencefor-
ward they showed themselves hostile to all measures for the improvement
of the condition of the industrial workers. (Cf. the brief but brilliant
essay by the Baroness Elisabeth von Eichthofen, at one time factory inspec-
tor at Heidelberg, Ueier die Mstorische Wandlung in der Stellung der
autoritdren Parteien sur Arheiterschutzgesetzgetung, und die Motive dieser
Wandlungen, Eossler, Heidelberg, 1901.)

BOURGEOISIE AND CLASS STRUGGLE 247

perfectly logical in constituting itself into a class party, and
in considering that the struggle against the bourgeoisie in all its
gradations, viewed as a single class, is the only possible means of
realizing a social order in which knowledge, health, and property
shall not be, as they are to-day, the monopolies of a minority.

There is no contradiction whatever between the necessity
which leads the proletariat to fight the bourgeoisie on the lines
of the class struggle and the necessity which leads it to lay so
mueh stress upon the general principle of human rights. Un-
questionably, in pursuit of the conquest of power, persuasion
is an excellent means to employ, for, as has already been pointed
out, a class which has been convinced even against its will that
its adversary's ideal is based upon better reasons than its own
and is inspired by loftier moral aims, will certainly lack force
to continue the struggle ; it will have lost that faith in its own
rights which alone confers upon resistance a moral justification.
Persuasion, however, does not suffice, for a class, even if par-
tially paralysed by its recognition of the fact that the right of
the hostile class is superior to its own, woidd none the less, hyp-
notized by its own class egoism, continue the struggle, and
would in the end yield to the force, not of words, but of facts.
The writer believes that all these considerations suffice to es-
tablish as an axiom that the entrance of bourgeois elements into
the ranks of the workers organized as a class party is determined
mainly by psychological motives, and that it represents a process
of spontaneous selection. It must be regarded as a logical con-
sequence of the historical phase of development through which,
we are now passing, but in view of the special conditions which
induce it there is no reason to interpret it as a preliminary
symptom of a spontaneous and general dissolution of the bour-
geoisie. To sum up, the issue of the struggle which is proceed-
ing between the two great classes representing conflicting eco-
nomic interests cannot possibly be decided by the passage of
individual or isolated molecules from one side to the other.

CHAPTER II

ANALYSIS OF THE BOURGEOIS ELEMENTS IN THE
SOCIALIST LEADERSHIP

Socialist leaders, considered in respect of tlieir social origin,
may be divided into two classes, those who belong primarily to
the proletariat, and those derived from the bourgeoisie, or rather
from the intellectual stratum of the bourgeoisie. The lower
middle class, that of the petty bourgeois, the minor agricultur-
ists, independent artisans, and shopkeepers, have furnished no
more than an insignificant contingent of socialist leaders. In
the most favourable conditions, the representatives of this lower
middle class follow the labour movement as sympathetic onlook-
ers, and at times actually join its ranks. Hardly ever do they
become numbered among its leaders.

Of these two classes of leaders, the ex-bourgeois, although at
the outset they were naturally opposed to socialism, prove
themselves on the average to be animated by a more fervent
idealism than the leaders of proletarian origin. The difference
is readily explained on psychological grounds. In most cases the
proletarian does not need to attain to socialism by a gradual
evolutionary process ; he is, so to speak, born a socialist, born a
member of the party — at least, this happens often enough, al-
though it does not apply to all strata of the proletariat and to
all places. In the countries where capitalist development is of
long standing, there exists in certain working-class milieux and
even in entire categories of workers a genuine socialist tradi-
tion. The son inherits the class spirit of the father, and he
doubtless from the grandfather. With them, socialism is "in
the blood." To this it must be added that actual economic re-
lationships (with the class struggle inseparable from these, in
which every individual, however refractory he may be to so-
cialist theory, is forced to participate) compel the proletarian to
Join the labour party. Socialism, far from being in opposi-
tion to his class sentiment, constitutes its plainest and most con-
spicuous expression. The proletarian, the wage-earner, the en-

248

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 24<9

rolled member of the party, is a socialist on the ground of di-
rect personal interest. Adhesion to socialism may cause him
grave material damage, such as the loss of his employment, and
may even make it impossible for him to gain his bread. Yet
his socialist views are the spontaneous outcome of his class ego-
ism, and he endures the hardships to which they may lead all
the more cheerfully because he is suffering for the common
cause. He is comforted by the more or less explicit recognition
or gratitude of his comrades. Th& action of the socialist prole-
tarian is a class action, and in many cases it may notably favour
the immediate interests of the individual.^

Very different is the case of socialists of bourgeois origin.
Hardly any of these are born in a socialist milieu. On the con-
trary, in their families the tradition is definitely hostile to the
workers, or at least full of disdain for the aspirations of modern
socialism. Among the bourgeois, just as much as among the
proletarians, the son inherits the spirit of the father, but in this
case it is the class spirit of the bourgeoisie. The young bour-
geois has ''in the blood" not socialism, but the capitalist men-
tality in one of its numerous varieties, and he inherits in addi-
tion an intellectualism which makes him proud of his supposed
superiority. We have further, on the one hand, to take into ac-
count the economic conditions in which the bourgeois child is
born and grows to maturity, and on the other the education
which he receives at school, all of which predisposes him to feel
nothing but aversion for the struggles of a working class pur-
suing socialist aspirations. In his economic environment he
learns to tremble for his wealth, to tremble when he thinks of
the shock his class will one day have to sustain when attacked
by the organized masses of the quatrieme Stat. Thus his class
egoism becomes more acute, and is even transformed into an
implacable hatred. His education, based upon official science,
contributes to confirm and to strengthen his sentiments as a
member of the master class. The influence which the school and
the domestic environment exercise upon the youthful scion of
the bourgeoisie is of such potency that even when his parents
are themselves socialist sympathizers and on moral and intellec-
tual grounds devoted to the cause of the workers, it most com-
monly happens that his bourgeois instincts gain the upper hand
over the socialist traditions of his family. "We learn from actual

* Cf . Part IV, chap. iv.

250 POLITICAL PARTIES

experience that it is very rare for the children of socialists,
when they have received the education of intellectuals, to fol-
low in their parents' footsteps. The cases of the children of
Marx, Longuet, Liebknecht, and Molkenbuhr, remain altogether
exceptional. It cannot be doubted that the rarity of such in-
stances is due to the methods of education which usually prevail
in a socialist family, methods which have nothing in common
with socialism. Even when it is otherwise, when the immediate
family environment is not opposed to the development of the
socialist consciousness, the young man of bourgeois origin is
strongly influenced by the milieu in which he is brought up.
Even after he has joined the socialist party, he will retain a
certain solidarity with the class from which he has sprung; for
example, in his relations with the servants in his household he
will remain always an employer, an ' ' exploiter, ' ' in the sociologi-
cal if not in the coarser sense of the latter term. For the bour-
geois, adhesion to socialism signifies an estrangement from his
own class, in most cases extensive social and ideal injury, and
often actual material loss. In the case of the petty bourgeois,
the evolution towards socialism may occur peacefully, for by his
intellectual and social conditions the petty bourgeois is closely
approximated to the proletarian, and above all to the better paid
manual worker, from whom he is in many cases separated by
purely imaginary barriers composed of all kinds of class preju-
dices. But the wealthier the family to which the bourgeois be-
longs, the more strongly it is attached to its family traditions,
the higher the social position that it occupies, the more difficult
is it for him, and the more painful, to break with his surround-
ings, and to adhere to the labour movement.

For the son of a wealthy capitalist, of an official in the higher
ranks, or for a member of the old-established landed aristocracy,
to join the socialists is to provoke a catastrophe.^ He is free to
give himself up to vague and harmless humanitarian dreams,
and even in private conversation to speak of himself as a "so-
cialist." But as soon as he displays the intention of becoming
an active member of the socialist party, of undertaking public
work on its behalf, of enrolling himself as an actual member of
the "rebel" army, the deserter from the bourgeoisie is regarded

^ Cf ., for example, the first volume of Memoiren einer Sozialistin, by
Lily Braun, the daughter of the German general von Kretschmann (Lan-
gen, Munich, 1909), where we find an admirable description of the con-
ditions to which reference has been made in the text.

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 251

by his own class as either a knave or a fool. His social prestige
falls below zero, and so great is the hostility displayed towards
him that he is obliged to break off all relations with his family.
The most intimate ties are abruptly severed. His relatives turn
their backs upon him. He has burned his boats and broken
with the past.

What are the motives which may lead the intellectual to de-
sert the bourgeoisie and to adhere to the party of the workers?
Among those who do this we may distinguish two fundamental
types.

There is first of all the man of science. The ends which he
pursues are of an objective character, but to the vulgar these
seem at first sight devoid of practical utility, and even fantasti-
cal and extravagant. The stimulus which drives him is ideal-
istic in this sense, that he is capable of sacrificing all other goods
to science and its gains. In thus acting, he obeys the powerful
impulse of his egoism, though it is an egoism ennobled. Scien-
tific coherency is an inborn need of his nature. Psychology
teaches us that in human beings every free exercise of faculty
produces a sentiment of pleasure. Consequently the sacrifices
which the socialist man of science makes for the party serve to
increase the sum of his personal satisfaction. Notwithstanding
all the material injuries he will suffer as a bourgeois in joining
the socialist party, he will have gained a greater inward content
and will have a more tranquil conscience. In some cases, too,
his sentiments will take the form of an ambition to render signal
services to the cause. In his case, of course, this ambition is
very different from the grosser ambition of those who look
merely for an increase in personal well-being — for a career,
wealth, and the like.

The second category consists of those who are inspired with
an intense sentimental attachment to socialism, who burn, so to
speak, with the sacred fire. Such a man usually becomes a so-
cialist when he is quite young, before material considerations and
precautions have erected a barrier in the way of obedience to
the impulses of his sanguine and enthusiastic temperament. He
is inspired with the ardour of the neophyte and the need for
devoting himself to the service of his kind.^ The principal mo-

' There are numerous Italian novels describing the conversion of the
young man of family to the principles of modern socialism, and in these
the conversion is always attributed to sentiments of generosity and com-
passion. Cf. Edmondo de Amicis, Lotte civili (Nerbini, Florence, 1899),

252 POLITICAL PARTIES

tives whicli animate him are a noble disdain for injustice and a
love for the weak and the poor, a delight in self-sacrifice for the
realization of great ideas, for these are motives which often give
courage and love of battle to the most timid and inert charac-
ters.* With all thiSj there is usually found in the socialist en-
thusiast of bourgeois origin a considerable dose of optimism, a
tendency to overestimate the significance of the moral forces of

and especially the admirable sketch in this volume (pp. 53 et seq.) entitled
A una Signora; G. B. Bianchi (pseudonym of the psychiatrist Pietro
Petrazzani) in his romance of Emilian life II primo Maggio (La Poligra-
fica, Milan, 1901); Vincenzo Vaeirca in his novel L'Apostata ("Parola del
Socialisti," Eavenna, 1905). — In the best-known Dutch socialist novel,
entitled BartJiold Meryan, by Baroness Cornelie Huygens (Van Kampen,
5th ed.), the hero is a young bourgeois intellectual inspired by a lofty spirit
of self-denial. — To the same motive has been attributed the adhesion to
socialism comparatively late in life of the Swedish poet Gustaf af Geijer-
stam. Under date July 11, 1910, the "Frankfurter Zeitung" writes as
follows: "What, then, were the motives that led Geijerstam, a man of
thoroughly conservative spirit, and proud of his rank, into the socialist
camp? On the one hand, unquestionably there were operative the influ-
ences of Strindberg's circle, to which Geijerstam belonged in his youth;
but his principal reason was his tenderness of conscience. There has been
a general awakening of the social conscience in all countries, but in Sweden
and in the work of Geijerstam this awakening attained its climax." — The
generous impulse of the receptive youthful mind is often extremely strong.
It is true that sometimes the direction of this impulse becomes transferred
to some smaller but nearer goal which has nothing in common with the orig-
inal aim. Eead, for example, the description given in his Tageiuch (Lan-
gen, Munich, 1907) by Otto Erich Hartleben of his own development, a de-
scription in which he confesses himself with perfect frankness. "For a
long period in my life I was ashamed of my natural love of pleasure. I
was never indeed a Christian, but I sometimes believed it to be my duty
to become a socialist, and regarded it as essential to devote my energies
to the service of some good cause. I have put all this behind me. I have
learned that one is one's own good cause, and I now endeavour to employ
my energies in my own service" (p. 228). This is termed by Hartleben the
"inner evolution towards the ultimate acquirement of a joyful faith in one-
self."

*"As you see, I have the physique neither of an athlete nor of a Uon.
In the moral sphere, too, I lack the qualities of the fighter. In the bottom
of my soul I love peace and quietness, and I should remain utterly inactive
if it were not that the socialist faith forces me in spite of myself to take
part in the struggles of our time — that faith which inculcates a profound
hatred of injustice and privilege, a no less strong conviction that they
must be abolished, and an irresistible desire to do all that we can to attain
this end." Such are the confessions of Camillo Prampolini, one of the
most distinguished figures of modern Italian socialism. (Cf. his Besistete
agli Arhitrii! [Cosa avrei detto ai giurati], Libreria Gavagnani e Pagliani,
Modena, 1900, p. 11)

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 253

the movement, and sometimes an excessive faith in his own self-
abnegation, with a false mode of conceiving the rhythm of evo-
lution, the nearness of the final victory, and the ease with which
it will be attained. The socialist faith is also in many cases
nourished by esthetic sensibilities. Those endowed with poetical
aptitudes and with a fervent imagination can more readily and
intuitively grasp the extent and the depth of human suffering;
moreover, the greater their own social distance from the imag-
ined objects, the more are they able to give their fancies free
rein.^ It is for this reason that among the ranks of those who
are fighting for the emancipation of labour we find so many
poets and imaginative writers, and so many persons of fiery, im-
passioned, and impulsive dispositions.*'

The question arises, which category is the more numerous,
that of those who become socialists from reasoned conviction, or
that of those who are guided by sentimental considerations. It
is probable that among those who become socialists in youth
the sentimentalists predominate,'^ whereas among those who go
over to socialism when they have attained maturity, the change
is usually dictated by scientific conviction. But in most cases
mixed motives are at work. Very numerous, in fact, are the
bourgeois who have always given a moral approval to socialism,
who have held that it is the only solution of the social problem
which conforms to the demands of justice, but who do not make
their effective adhesion to the doctrine until they acquire the
conviction (which at times seizes them quite unexpectedly) that
the aspirations of their heart are not merely just and beautiful,
but also realizable in practice.® Thus the socialist views of these

^ Cf . also Ettore Ciceotti, Fsicologia del Movimento Socialista, ed. cit., pp.
45-6 and 85.

*A few only of the most notable of such persons, who are or who have
been active workers on behalf of socialism, may be mentioned here: Wil-
liam Morris, Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, Jack London, George D. Herron,
Upton Sinclair; J. B. Clement, Clovis Hugnes, A'natole France, Jules Des-
tree; CorneHe Huygens, Hermann Gorter, Henriette Eoland-Holst; Georg
Herwegh, Wilhekn Holzamer, Karl HenkeU, Emil Eosenow; Edmondo de
Amicis, Mario Eapisardi, Diego Garoglio, Augelo Cabrini, G. Eomualdi,
VirgUio Broechi, Tomaso Monicelli; Maxim Gorki; Gustav af Geijerstam,

' Such is also the opinion of Hubert Lagardelle, as expressed in his pam-
phlet Les Intellectuels devant le Socialisme, "Cahiers de la Quinzaine,"
Paris, 1900, p. 57.

*"Take the case of an idealist who aims in theory at the triumph of
good, but who through insufficient knowledge of the real state of affairs ar-
rives at theoretical conclusions and advocates practical expedients which

254 POLITICAL PARTIES

persons are a synthesis of sentiment and science. In 1894^ an
inquiry was made as to the attitude towards socialism of the
most distin^ished Italian artists and men of learning. They
were asked whether their sympathy with socialist aims, their
indifference to socialism, or their hostility to the doctrine, was
the outcome of a concrete investigation of socialist problems, or
whether their feelings were of a purely sentimental character.
The majority of those who replied declared that their attitude
towards socialism was the outcome of a psychical predisposition,
reinforced by objective convictions.^ A similar answer might

tend to consecrate the triumph of evil. Can we say here that he is guided
by the suggestions of personal interest! Where does self-interest come
in? The suggestions at work arise from errors of the intelligence. Sim-
ilarly the increase in the number of thinkers and idealists who in critical
periods devote themselves to the service of the revolutionary classes, may
in part, and in the case of many of them, be due to the conscious or un-
conscious suggestions of self-interest; but to a large extent, and in many,
this action is determined by the influence of ideal aspirations which at one
time they believed incapable of realization, but which now, under the
new conditions, they regard as realizable. ... To the historian of the
social movement, these psychological distinctions may appear of secondary
importance; not so to the moralist" (Benedetto Croee, Materialismo storico
ed Economia marxistica. Saggi Critici, Eemo Sandron, Milan-Palermo,
1900, p. 57). Bernstein gives a similar analysis of the motives which
influence the various adherents to socialism, but touches on the question
rather lightly (E. Bernstein, Zur GeschicMe u. Theorie des Sozialisntms,
Diimmler, Berlin, 1904, 4th ed., vol. iii, pp. 42 et seq.).

^11 Socialismo giudicato da Letterati, Artisti e Scienziati italiani. In-
chiesta, con Prefazione di Gustavo Macchi, Carlo Aliprandi, Milan, 1895. —
Gustavo Macchi, who was himself at one time a member of the Interna-
tional, enquired of twenty-one socialists belonging without exception to
cultured circles, for what reason they had become socialists. Nine de-
clared that they had taken this step solely on ethical grounds, many of
them adding that their socialist convictions had been subsequently rein-
forced by scientific studies; four stated that they had been turned towards
socialism by the "simultaneous" influence of sentimental and scientific
considerations; one (the novelist Giovanni Cena) said simply that he was
himself a child of the proletariat; another (the poet Diego Garoglio) said
that he had received the first impulse towards socialism through observing
the life-activities of his father, who was a judge, but that he had in part
been influenced by Christian considerations; Enrico Ferri's answer dis-
played the influence of mixed motives ("humanitarian sentiment by pre-
disposition, progressively reinforced by a study of the question, leading
finally to a profound scientific conviction"); five only claimed to have
attained to socialist convictions chiefly or exclusively upon scientific grounds.
Among the members of this last group one, Arturo Graf, declared that
his adhesion to socialism was solely the outcome of study and conviction,
in conflict with various opposing conditions, and in especial with his per-

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 255

doubtless be given by the Marxists, notwithstanding tbeir superb
disdain for all ideology and sentimental compassion, and not-
withstanding the materialism with which they love to dress
their windows. In so far as they are not completely absorbed in
party life, or rather so long as they have not been completely
overpowered by the ties of party life, they display a strictness of
principle which is essentially idealist.^"

Not all those, indeed, who sympathize with socialism or have
a rational conviction of the truth of socialist principles become
effective members of the socialist party. Many feel a strange
repugnance at the idea of intimate association with the unknown
crowd, or they experience an aesthetic disgust at the thought of
close contact with persons who are not always clean or sweet-
smelling." Still more numerous are those held back by lazi-
ness or by an exaggerated fondness for a quiet life, or, again, by
the more or less justified fear that open adhesion to the party
will react unfavourably upon their economic position. Some-
times the impulse to join the party is given by some external
circumstance, insignificant in itself, but sufficient to give the
last impetus to resolution : it may be a striking instance of social
injustice which stirs a collective emotion; it may be some per-
sonal wrong inflicted upon the would-be socialist himself or upon
one of those dear to him,^^ when a sudden explosion of egoism
finishes the slow work of altruistic tendencies. In other cases
it is a necessity of fate, or the outcome of the ill-will and stu-
pidity of human beings, which forces the man who has been a

sonal inclinations, with his tastes, and his mode of life; another, OUndo
Malagodi, now editor of the ' ' Tribuna, ' ' said that towards socialism he
was "normally sympathetic" but "pathologically indifferent"; a third,
Giovanni Lerda, made the sound observation that those who become social-
ists exclusively from sentimental reasons and without any scientific under-
standing of the doctrine are undesirable adherents; Filippo Turati eluded
the question with the remark that he had never found it possible "to
separate sentiment from reason."

^""Ils ont garde la fidelite au but propose, la fidelite quand meme, sans
se soucier des difficultes du chemin a parcourir. — 'En avant! advienne que
pourra' — disent les materialistes ayant les yeux constamment fixe sur leur
ideal superieur. Ce n 'est plus 1 'idealisme verbal, enivrant et sterile. C 'est
1 'idealism en action. C 'est la vie quotidienne elargie, agrandie, eclairee par
une conception superieur e" (Charles Eappoport, La PMlosophie de I'His-
toire comme Science de I'Evolution, Jacques, Paris, 1903, p. v),

" The present writer has frequently heard people say : "I have every
sympathy with socialism — if only there were not any socialists ! ' '

" Ettore Ciccotti, Psicologia del Movimento socialista, ed. cit., p. 47.

256 POLITICAL PARTIES

secret socialist to cross the Rubicon, almost by inadvertence.
For example, something may happen which discredits him in
the eyes of the members of his own class, displaying to all the
socialist ideas which he has hitherto jealously concealed. Many
a person does not join the party of the workers until, after some
imprudent manifestation of his own, an enemy has denounced
him in the bourgeois press, thus placing him in a dilemma: he
must either make a shameful retreat, at the cost of a humiliating
retraction, or else must make public acknowledgment of the ideas
which he has hitherto held secret.^^ Such persons become mem-
bers of the socialist party as young women sometimes become
mothers, without having desired it. The Russian nihilist Net-
chajeff made the idea of unmasking these timid revolutionary-
minded persons the basis of a scheme of revolutionary agitation.
He contended that it was the revolutionist's duty to compromise
all those who, whilst they shared most of his ideas, did not as
yet share them all; in this way he would force them to break
definitely with the enemy, and would gain them over completely
to the "sacred cause. "^*

It has often been asserted that the receptivity to socialist
ideas varies in the different liberal professions. It is said that
the speculative sciences (in the strictest sense of the term),
such as philosophy, history, political economy, theology, and ju-
risprudence, are so profoundly imbued with the spirit of the
past that those engaged in their study are refractory a priori
to the reception of all subversive ideas. In the legal profession,
in particular, it is contended there is inculcated a love of order,
an attachment to the thing which is, a sacred respect for form,
a slowness of procedure, and, if you will, a certain narrowness
of view, which are all supposed to constitute natural correctives
to the errors inherent in democracy.^^ In a general sense, we

""An article in a newspaper may be for you, as bourgeois, a sentence
of death. Do you regard this as a small matter? Once compromised, you
will find yourself quite alone ; you will suddenly become aware that no
one will have anything more to do with you. You may be clever, and hand-
some, talented and free-handed, cheerful and helpful; but once thoroughly
compromised you have become a social leper; everyone who sits beside you
in a public place, who walks with you in the street, who talks with you
in a restaurant, will become compromised in his turn, and for this reason
carefully avoids you" (Max Tobler, Ihr, die Ilir den Weg finden sollt!,
*' Polls," anno ii, No. 1, p. 10).

"James Guillaume, L' Internationale, etc., ed. cit., vol. ii, p. 62.

^Eoseher, PoUtik, ed. cit., p. 385.

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 257

are told, the deductive and abstract sciences are authoritative
and aristocratic in spirit, and those who pursue these paths of
study incline to reactionary and doctrinaire views. Those, on
the other hand, engaged in the study of the experimental and
inductive sciences are led to employ their faculties of observa-
tion, which conduct them gradually to wider and wider generali-
zations, and they must thus be easy to win over to the cause of
progress.^^ The doctor, above all, whose profession is a con-
tinued struggle against human misery, must carry in his mind
the germs of the socialist eonception.^^

An analysis of the professions of the intellectuals belonging
to the various socialist parties does not confirm this theory. It
is in Italy and France alone that we find a considerable number
of medical men in the socialist ranks, and even here they are
less numerous than the devotees of pure science, and conspicu-
ously less numerous than the lawyers.^^ In Germany, the rela-
tions between the socialist workers and those medical men who
are least well-to-do (the doctors of the insurance-bureaux) are
far from cordial. To sum up, it may be said in general terms
that the doctor's attitude towards socialism is colder and more
hostile than that of the abstract philosopher or the barrister.
One reason for this may perhaps be that among doctors, more
than among other intellectuals, there prevails, and has prevailed
for the past forty years, a materialistically conceived and rigidly
held Darwinism and Haeckelism. A supplementary cause may be
found in the cynicism, often pushed to an ego centric extreme,
by which many doctors are affected, as a natural reaction against
the smell of the mortuary which attends their life-work and as

^^ Michael Bakunin, Les Ejidormeiirs, Imp. Jean Alemane, Paris, 1900,
p. 11. — Ettore Ciccotti, Psichol. del Mov. Soc, ed. cit., p. 51.

" Ciccotti, Hid. p. 52.

^^ In the parliamentary socialist group in Germany and Holland, although
there "n-ill be found a fair number of lavsyers, there are no medical men
nor any men engaged in the study of natural science. The Italian socialist
group, indeed, contained in 1904 four medical men, but at the same time
there were seventeen lawyers; moreover, among the four doctors, two were
engaged in university teaching, and were thus theorists rather than prac-
titioners. (Cf. detailed examination by Michels, Proletariato e Borghesia,
ed. cit., pp. 90 et seq.) The French parliamentary group of the Socialistes
Unifies contained in the year 1910: manual workers and employees (for the
most part employees of trade unions), 31; small farmers, 7; sehoolmast«rs,
3; manufacturers and shopkeepers, 5; university professors, 8; joui-nalists,
7; engineers, 1; chemists, 1; barristers, 7; doctors and pharmacists, 6
C^L'Humamte/' June 1, 1910).

258 POLITICAL PARTIES

an outcome of their experience of the wickedness^ the stupidity,
and the frailty of the human material with which their prac-
tice brings them in contact.

In certain Protestant countries, in Holland, Switzerland,
Great Britain, and America, we find a considerable number of
the clergy among the socialists (but this is not the case in Ger-
many, where the state is vigilant and powerful whilst the Luther-
an Church is strict and intolerant). These ministers, we are
told, make their adhesion to socialism on account of an elevated
sense of duty towards their neighbour,^'' but perhaps in addition
there is operative the need which is no less strong in the preacher
than in the popular orator, to be listened to, followed, and ad-
mired by the crowd — it is of little importance whether by be-
lievers or unbelievers.

Here some reference may be made to the abundance of Jews
among the leaders of the socialist and revolutionary parties.
Specific racial qualities make the Jew a born leader of the
masses, a born organizer and propagandist. First among these
qualities comes that sectarian fanaticism which, like an infec-
tion, can be communicated to the masses with astonishing fre-
quency; next we have an invincible self-confidence (which in
Jewish racial history is most characteristically displayed in the
lives of the prophets) ; there are remarkable oratorical and dia-
lectical aptitudes, a still more remarkable ambition^ an irresist-
ible need to figure in the lime-light, and last but not least an
' almost unlimited power of adaptation. There has not during the
last seventy -five years been any new current agitating the popu-
lar political life in which Jews have failed to play an eminent
part. Not a few such movements must be distinctively consid-
ered as their work. Jews organize the revolution; and Jews
organize the resistance of the state and of society against the
subversive forces. Socialism and conservatism have been forged
by Jewish hands and are impregnated with the Jewish spirit.
In Germany, for example, we see on the one side Marx and Las-
salle fanning the flames of revolution, and on the other, after
1848, Julius Stahl working as the brilliant theorist of the feudal
reaction. In England, the Jew Disraeli reorganized the forces
of the conservative party. We find Jews at the head of the
movements which marshal against one another the nationalities

" Cf . the interesting study, detailed and well-furnished with evidence by
Karl Vorlander, Sosialdemolcratische Pfarrer, "Archiv fur Sozialwiss., "
vol. XXX, fase. 2.

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 259

animated by a reciprocal hate. At Venice, it was Daniel Manin
who raised the standard of liberty against the Austrians. Dur-
ing the Franco-German war, the work of national defence was
organized by Gambetta. In England, Disraeli was the inventor
of the watchword "the integrity of the British Empire," whilst
in Germany, the Jews Eduard Simson, Bamberger, and Lasker,
were the leading champions of that nationalist liberalism which
played so important a part in the foundation of the empire. In
Austria, Jews constitute the advance-guard of almost all the
strongly nationalist parties. Among the German Bohemians,
the Italian irredentists, the Polish nationalists^ and in especial
among the Magyars, the most fanatical are persons of Jewish
race. The Jews, in fact, are capable of organizing every kind of
movement ; even among the leaders of antisemitism there are
not wanting persons of Jewish descent.

The adaptability and the intellectual vivacity of the Jews
do not, however, suffice to explain the quantitative and quali-
tative predominance of persons of Hebrew race in the party of
the workers. In Germany, above all, the influence of Jews has
been conspicuous in the labour movement. The two first great
leaders, Ferdinand Lassalle and Karl Marx, were Jews, and so
was their contemporary Moses Hess. The first distinguished pol-
itician of the old school to join the socialists, Johann Jacoby,
was a Jew. Such also was Karl Hochberg, the idealist, son of a
rich merchant in Frankfort-on-the-Main, founder of the first
socialist review published in the German language. Paul Singer,
who was almost invariably chairman of the German socialist
congresses, was a Jew. Among the eighty-one socialist deputies
sent to the Reichstag in the penultimate general election, there
were nine Jews, and this figure is an extremely high one when
compared with the percentage of Jews among the population of
Germany, and also with the total number of Jewish workers and
with the number of Jewish members of the socialist party. Four
of the nine were still orthodox Jews (Stadthagen, Singer, Wurm,
and Haase). In various capacities, Jews have rendered ines-
timable services to the party: Eduard Bernstein, Heinrich
Braun, Jakob Stern, Simon Katzenstein, and Bruno Schonlank,
as theorists ; Gradnauer, Eisner, and Josef Bloch, the editor of
the " Sozialistische Monatshefte, " as journalists; Hugo Heunann,
in the field of municipal politics ; Leo Arons, as a specialist in
electoral affairs; Ludwig Frank, as organizer of the socialist
youth. In Austria, the predominance of Jews in the socialist

260 POLITICAL PARTIES

movement is conspicuous; it suffices to mention the names of
Victor Adler, Ellenbogen, Fritz Austerlitz, Max Adler, F. Hertz,
Therese Schlesinger-Eckstein, Dr. Diamand, Adolf Braun, etc.
In America we have Morris Hillquit, A. M. Simons, M. Unter-
mann. In Holland, we have Henri Polak, the leader of the dia-
mond workers, D. J. "Wijnkoop, the independent Marxist, and
M. Mendels. In Italy, Elia Musatti, Claudio Treves, G. E.
Modigliani, Riccardo and Adolfo Momigliano, R. L. Foa, and
the man of science Cesare Lombroso. Even in France, although
here the role of the Jews is less conspicuous, we may mention
the names of Paul Louis, Edgard Milhaud, and the shareholders
of "rHumanite" in 1904. The first congress of the Parti
Ouvrier in 1879 was rendered possible by the liberal financial
support of Isaac Adolphe Cremieux, who had been governor of
Algeria under Gambetta.^''

In many countries, in Russia and Roumania for instance, but
above all in Hungary and in Poland, the leadership of the work-
ing-class parties (the Russian Revolutionary Party excepted) is
almost exclusively in the hands of Jews, as is plainly apparent
from an examination of the personality of the delegates to the
international congresses. Besides, there is a great spontaneous
export from Russia of Jewish proletarian leaders to foreign
socialist parties: Rosa Luxemburg and Dr. Israel Helphant
(Parvus) have gone to Germany; Charles Rappoport to France;
Anna Kulishoff and Angelica Balabanoff to Italy; the brothers
Reichesberg to Switzerland; M. Beer and Theodor Rothstein to
England. Finally, to bring this long enumeration to a close, it
may be mentioned that among the most distinguished leaders of
the German anarchists there are many Jews, such as Gustav
Landauer, Siegfried Nacht, Pierre Ramus, Senna Hoj (Johannes
Holzmann).

The origin of this predominant position (which, be it noted,
must in no sense be regarded as an indication of ' ' Judaization, ' '
as a symptom of dependence of the party upon the money of
Jewish capitalist comrades) is to be found, as far at least as
concerns Germany and the countries of eastern Europe, in the
peculiar position which the Jews have occupied and in many re-
spects still occupy. The legal emancipation of the Jews has not
here been followed by their social and moral emancipation. In
large sections of the German people a hatred of the Jews and

'"'Mermeix, La France Socialiste, ed. eit., p. 69.

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 261

the spirit of the Jew-baiter still prevail, and contempt for the
Jews is a permanent feeling. The Jew's chances in public life
are injuriously affected ; he is practically excluded from the ju-
dicial profession, from a military career, and from official em-
plojonent. Yet everywhere in the Jewish race there continues
to prevail an ancient and justified spirit of rebellion against the
■wrongs from which it suffers, and this sentiment, idealist in its
origin, animating the members of an impassioned race, becomes
in them more easily than in those of Germanic blood transformed
into a disinterested abhorrence of injustice in general and ele-
vated into a revolutionary impulse towards a grandly conceived
world-amelioration.^^

Even when they are rich, the Jews constitute, at least in east-
ern Europe, a category of persons who are excluded from the
social advantages which the prevailing political, economic, and
intellectual system ensures for the corresponding portion of the
Gentile population. Society, in the narrower sense of the term,
is distrustful of them, and public opinion is unfavourable to
them. Besides the sentiment which is naturally aroused in their
minds by this injustice, they are often affected by that cosmo-
politan tendency which has been highly developed in the Jews
by the historical experiences of the race, and these combine to
push them into the arms of the working-class party. It is owing
to these tendencies that the Jews, guided in part by reason and
in part by sentimental considerations, so readily disregard the
barriers which the bourgeoisie endeavours to erect against the
rising flood of the revolution by the accusation that its advocates
are des sans patrie.

For all these reasons, the Jewish intelligence is apt to find a
shorter road to socialism than the Gentile, but this does not
diminish the obligations of the socialist party to the Jewish in-
tellectuals. Only to the intellectuals, indeed, for the Jews who

^ Liebkneeht declared in a speech : ' ' Slavery does not merely demoralize ;
it illuminates the mind, elevates the strong, creates idealists and rebels.
Thus we find that in the more powerful and nobler natures among the Jews
a sense of freedom and justice has been inspired by their unworthy situa-
tion and a revolutionary spirit has been cultivated. The result is that
there is proportionately a much larger amount of idealism among Jews than
among non-Jews" (Wilhelm Liebkneeht, Ueber den Kolner Parteitag mit
hesonderer Berucksichtigung der GewerTcschaftsheiuegung, Buchdruckerei
Volkswacht, Bielefeld, 3893, p. 33). — Eegarding the revolutionary-idealist-
fanatical tendencies of Judaism, see also the brilliant analysis by Guglielmo
Perrero in L'Europa giovane, Treves, Milan, 1897, pp. 358 et seq.

262 POLITICAL PARTIES

belong to the wealthy trading and manufacturing classes and
also the members of the Jewish petty bourgeoisie, whilst often
voting socialist in the elections, steadily refuse to join the social-
ist party. Here the interests of class prevail over those of race.
It is very different with the Jewish intellectuals, and a statisti-
cal enquiry would certainly show that not less than 2 to 3 per
cent, of these are members of the socialist party. If the socialist
party has always manifested an unhesitating resistance to anti-
semite sentiment, this is due not merely to the theoretical social-
ist aversion for all "nationalism" and all racial prejudices, but
also to the consciousness of all that the party owes to the Jewish
intellectuals.

"Antisemite socialism" made its first appearance about 1870.
"^Eugen Diihring, at that time Frivatdozent at the University of
Berlin, inaugurated a crusade in favour of a "German" social-
ism as opposed to the "Jewish" socialism of Marx and his col-
laborators.^^ This movement was inspired by patriotic motives,
for Diihring held that the victory of Marxian socialism could
not fail to result in the complete subordination of the people to
the state, to the advantage of the prominent Jews and their
acolytes.^^ Towards 1875, Diihring became the centre of a small
group of Berlinese socialists of which Johann Most and the Jew
Eduard Bernstein were members. The influence of this group,
however, did not survive the great polemic which Diihring had
to sustain with Friedrich Engels, the spiritual brother of ' ' Marx
the Jew."^* Diihring 's influence upon the socialist masses in
fact declined in proportion as his antisemitism became accentu-
ated, and towards 1878 it was extinct. In 1894 another attempt
was made to give socialism an antisemite tendency. This was
the work of Eichard Calwer, another socialist of strongly na-
tionalist views, at that time on the staff of the * ' Braunschweiger
Volksf reund. " "For every good Jewish writer," he declared,
"there will be found at least half a dozen who are altogether
worthless, but who possess an extraordinary power of self-asser-
tion and an inexhaustible flow of words, but no real understand-
ing of socialism." ^^ Calwer 's campaign had, however, no better

''''Cf. Eugen Diihring, KriUsche GescMchte der NationdlosTconomie u. der
Sosialismus, Th. Grieben, Berlin, 1871, pp. 589 et seq.

*' Eugen Diihring, Sache, Leben u. Feinde, Carlsruhe, 1882, p. 207.

^* Cf . Engels ' work, Herrn Eugen Diihrings Umwalsung der Wissenschaftp
first published in 1877 in the Leipzig "Vorwarts. "

*^R, Calwer, Das Kommunistische Manifest, ed. cit., p. 41.

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 263

success than that of Duhring. A year before, when petty bour-
geois antisemitism was spreading through the country as an
anti-capitalist movement which was forming itself into a politi-
cal party and making victims everywhere, the Cologne congress
(October 1893) took up a definite position towards this new po-
litical movement. Bebel's report (which in antisemite circles
had been anticipated with satisfaction), although far from ex-
haustive, was inspired throughout by a sentiment friendly to-
wards the Jews. Bebel said : * ' The Jewish student is as a rule
industrious during the greater part of his university career,
whereas the 'Germanic' student most commonly spends his time
in the drinking-bars and restaurants, in the fencing-schools, or
in other places which I will not here more particularly specify
(laughter)." ^^ "Wilhelm Liebknecht, in his well-known speech
at Bielefeld,^''' notably reinforced the impression hostile to anti-
Semitism produced by the congress. Since that time (if we ex-
cept certain observations made at the Liibeck congress in 1901 by
the barrister "Wolfgang Heine in a polemic against Parvus and
Eosa Luxemburg 2® — remarks that were maladroit rather than
expressions of principle, and at the worst foolish reminiscences
of a youth passed as a leader in the Verein deutscJier Studenten)
the German socialists have remained immune to the virus of
race hatred, and have shown themselves quite unconcerned when
ignorant opponents have endeavoured to arouse popular preju-
dice against them by speaking of them as a party of ' ' Jews and
their satellites. ' ' ^^

We may now add certain observations upon the frequent ad-
hesion to socialism of members of the plutocracy, an adhesion
which at first sight seems so strange. Certain persons of a gentle
and charitable disposition, abundantly furnished with everything
that can satisfy their desires, are sometimes inspired by the
need of undertaking propagandist activities. They wish, for
example, to make their neighbours share in the well-being which
they themselves enjoy. These are the rich philanthropists. In
most cases their conduct is the outcome of hypersensitiveness or

^Frotolioll, p. 234.

" Quoted above, p. 261.

^FrotolcoU, p. 195.

*'At election times the German antisemites make it a regular practice
to exploit the barbarous race-prejudices with which the common people
are still animated, endeavouring in this way to render suspect as a Jew,
or at least as a protege of the Jews, every socialist candidate whose name
might suggest a Jewish origin, such as David, or even Auer.

264 POLITICAL PARTIES

sentimentalism ; they cannot endure tlie sufferings of others, not
so much because they experience a genuine pity for the sufferers,
but because the sight of pain arouses pain in themselves and
shocks their aesthetic sense. They thus resemble the majority of
human beings, who cannot bear to see pigeons slaughtered but
whose sentiments in this respect do not impair their relish for a
pigeon-pie.

In the sick brains of certain persons whose wealth is exceeded
only by their love of paradox, there has originated the fantastic
belief that in view of the imminence of the revolution they can
preserve their fortunes from the confiscatory fury of the revolu-
tionists only by making profession of the socialist faith, and by
thus gaining the powerful and useful friendship of its leaders.
It is this ingenuous belief which has thrown them into the arms
of the socialists. Others, again, among the rich, hasten to enrol
themselves as members of the socialist party^, in the dread lest
their lives should be threatened through the exasperation of the
poor.^^ More frequently, however, as has been well shown by
Bernard Shaw, the rich man is drawn towards socialism because
he finds the greatest possible difficulty in procuring for himself
any new pleasures. He begins to feel a disgust for the bourgeois
world, and in the end this may stifle his class consciousness^ or
at least may suppress the instinct which has hitherto led him to
fight for self-preservation against the proletariat.^^

It is a very striking phenomenon how large is the percentage
of Jewish rentiers who become members of the socialist party.^^
In part this may be due to the racial characteristics of the Jew
to which reference has already been made. In part, however, it
is the outcome of the psychological peculiarities of the wealthy
man afflicted with satiety. In certain cases, again, the strongly
developed love of acquisition characteristic of the Jews affords
the explanation, where the possibility has been recognized of
making a clever investment of capital even in working-class un-
dertakings.

^^ " O riches, une solidarite de celeste origine vous enchalne a leur misere
[la misere des proletaires] par la peur, et voua lie par votre interet meme
a leur delivrance future" (Louis Blanc, Organisation du Travail, ed. eit.,
p. 25).

^^ Bernard Shaw, Socialism for Millionaires, Fabian Society, London,
1901.

^^ This fact has been noted by various writers, among others by G. Sorel,
Illusions du Progres, ed cit., pp. 206 et seq., and Domela Nieuwenhuis,
Van Christen, etc., ed. cit., p. 322.

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 265

It may, however, be said without fear of error that the great
majority of young bourgeois who come over to socialism do so, to
quote an expression used by Felice Momigliano, in perfect sin-
cerity and inspired by ardent goodwill. They seek neither pop-
ular approbation, nor wealth, nor distinctions, nor well-paid po-
sitions. They think merely that a man must set himself right
with his own conscience and must affirm his faith in action.^^

These men, again, may be classed in two distinct categories.
We have, on the one hand, the loving apostles of wide sympa-
thies, who wish to embrace the whole of humanity in their ideal.
On the other hand we have the zealots, fierce, rigid, austere, and
uncompromising.^*

But among the socialists of bourgeois origin we find other and
less agreeable elements. Above all there are those who make a
profession of discontent, the neurasthenics and the mauvais cou-
ch eurs. Yet more numerous are the malcontents from personal
motives, the charlatans, and the ambitious. Many hate the au-
thority of the state because it is inaccessible to them.^^ It is the
old story of the fox and the grapes. They are animated by jeal-
ousy, by the unassuaged thirst for power ; their feelings resemble
those of the younger sons of great families who are inspired with
hatred and envy towards their richer and more fortunate broth-
ers. They are animated by a pride which makes them prefer
the position of chief in proletarian Gaul to that of subordinate
in aristocratic Rome.

There are j^et other types somewhat similar to those just
enumerated. First of all, there are the eccentrics. It seems
natural that those whose position is low should attempt to
storm the heights. But there are some whose position is lofty
and who yet experience an irresistible need to descend from
the heights, where they feel that their movements are re-
stricted, and who believe that by descending they will gain
greater liberty. They seek ''sincerity"; they endeavour to dis-

^ Momigliano, in an article which appeared in the "Eagione" of Eome,
reprinted in " Ccenobium, " anno iv, fasc. i, p. 139.

^* " Le mepris et les persecutions ne les touchent pas, ou ne font que les
exciter d'avantage. Interet personnel, famille, tout est sacrifie. L 'instinct
de la conservation lui-meme est annulle chez eux, au point que la seule
recompense qu'ils solieitent souvent est de devenir des martyrs" (Gustave
le Bon, PsycJiologie des Foules, ed. eit., p. 106).

^Cf. Jules Destree, Bevolution verhale et BSvolution pratique, ''Le
Peuple," Brussels, 1902, p. 51; also Giorgio Arcoleo, Forme vecchie, Idee
nuove, Laterza, Bari, 1909, p. 19'6.

266 POLITICAL PARTIES

cover ''the people" of whom they have an ideal in their minds;
they are idealists to the verge of lunacy.

There may be added all those disillusioned and dissatisfied
persons who have not succeeded in gaining the attention of the
bourgeoisie to an extent proportionate to their own conception of
their genius. Such persons throw themselves on the neck of the
proletariat,^^ in most cases with the vague and instinctive hope
of attaining a speedier success in view of the deficient culture of
the working classes, of gaining a place in the limelight and play-
ing a leading part. They are visionaries, geniuses misunder-
stood, apostates of all kinds, literary bohemians, the unrecognized
inventors of various social panaceas, rates, rapins, cabotins,
quack-salvers at the fair, clowns — all persons who are not think-
ing of educating the masses but of cultivating their own egos.

The numerical increase of the party, which is associated with
an increasing prestige (in the popular esteem, at least, if not in
the ofQcial world) , exercises a great force of attraction. In such
countries as Germany, above all, where the gregarious spirit is
highly developed, small parties are condemned to a stinted and
rickety existence.^'^ But numerous bourgeois believe that they
will "find in the great socialist party what they have not been
iable to find in the bourgeois parties," a suitable platform for
political activity upon a vast scale.^® For this reason, and above
all when the party passes from opposition to governmental col-
laboration,^^ there results a great increase in the number of those
who regard the party as a mere means to their own ends, as a
pedestal from whose elevation they can better satisfy their ambi-
tion and their vanity, those who regard success not as a goal to
be attained for the good of the cause, or as the reward for ardu-
ous service in pursuit of ideal aims, but one coveted on its own
account for the enlargement of their own personalities. As Ar-
coleo has well expressed it, we dread the triumph of such per-
sons as if it were the unchaining of hungry wild beasts, but on
closer examination we discover that after all they are no more
than greedy molluscs, harmless on the whole.^° These consider-

^Cf. Giuseppe Prezzolini La Teoria sindacalista, ed. cit., p. 90.

^'Cf. letter published by Fr. Naumann apropos of the dissolution of the
Nationalsozialer Verein after the elections of 1904.

^Au^st Bebel, Ein Nachwori sur Viseprasidentenfrage u. Verwandtem,
loe. cit., "Neue Zeit," 1903 (Separatabzug), pp. 20, 21.

^^Cf. also the considerations to which reference has been made on pp.
212-214.

*'G. Arcoleo, Forme FeccJiie, Idee Nuove, ed. cit., p. 80.

BOURGEOIS LEADERS 267

ations apply to petty affairs as well as to great ones. "WTienevef
the party of the workers founds a cooperative society or a peo-
ple's bank which offers to intellectuals an assured subsistence
and an influential position, there flock to the scene numerous
professional socialists who are equally devoid of true socialist
knowledge and genuine socialist sentiment. In democracy as
elsewhere success signifies the death of idealism.

CHAPTER III

SOCIAL CHANGES RESULTING FROM ORGANIZATION

The social changes which organization produces among the
proletarian elements, and the alterations which are effected in
the proletarian movement through the influx of those new influ-
ences which the organization attracts within its orbit, may be
summed up in the comprehensive customary term of the emhour-
geoisement of working-class parties. This embourgeoisement is
the outcome of three very different orders of phenomena: (1)
the adhesion of petty bourgeois to the proletarian parties; (2)
labour organization as the creator of new petty bourgeois strata ;
(3) capitalist defence as the creator of new petty bourgeois
strata.

1. The Adhesion of Petty Bourgeois to the Proletarian Parties.

For motives predominantly electoral, the party of the workers
seeks support from the petty bourgeois elements of society, and
this gives rise to more or less extensive reactions upon the party
itself. The labour party becomes the party of the ' ' people. ' ' Its
appeals are no longer addressed simply to the manual workers,
but to ''all producers," to the "entire working population,"
these phrases being applied to all the classes and all the strata
of society except the idlers who live upon the income from in-
vestments.^ Both the friends and the enemies of the socialist
party have frequently pointed out that the petty bourgeois
members tend more and more to predominate over the manual
workers. During the struggles which occurred during the early
part of 1890 in the German socialist party against the so-called
"youths," the assertion that during recent years a complete
transposition of power had occurred within the party aroused a
veritable tempest. On one side it was maintained that the prole-
tarian elements were to an increasing extent being thrust into

1 Cf . p. 16.
268

RESULTS OF ORGANIZATION 269

the background by the petty bourgeois. The other faction re-
pudiated this accusation as a "calumny." One of the best es-
tablished generalizations which we obtain from the study of his-
tory is this, that political parties, even when they are the advo-
cates of moral and social ideas of profound import, find it very
difficult to tolerate the utterance of inconvenient truths. We
have seen that the most unprejudiced enquiries are apt to be
regarded as the outcome of a vicious tendency to fault-finding.
The truth is, however, that an objective and searching discussion
of the question leads us to recognize the wrongheadedness at once
of those who are content flatly to deny the embourgeoisement of
the socialist party and also of those who are content to sing the
praises of the great socialist petty bourgeois party. Neither
view is sound. The processes at work are too complex for solu-
tion by easy phrase-making.

It may sometimes happen (although statistical proof of this is
lacking) that in South Germany in certain socialist branches,
and still more in certain party congresses, the petty bourgeoisie,
though not numerically predominant, can yet exercise a pre-
ponderant influence. It may even be admitted that under cer-
tain conditions the strength of the petty bourgeois elements and
the respect which is paid to them may at times compromise the
proletarian essence of the party. Even so rigid a Marxist as
Karl Kautsky is of opinion that the attitude of socialists to-
wards distributive cooperative societies must depend mainly
upon their attitude towards the minor distributive trade in gen-
eral, so that, "on political grounds," socialists must oppose the
foundation of cooperative societies wherever, as often happens,
small traders offer a favourable recruiting-ground for socialism.^

"Wherever it has been possible to analyse the composition of
the socialist party, and to ascertain the classes and the profes-
sions of its adherents, it has generally been found that the bour-
geois and petty bourgeois elements, although well represented,
are far from being numerically preponderant. The official' statis-
tics of the Italian socialist party present the following figures : —
Industrial workers, 42.27%; agricultural labourers, 14.99%;
peasant proprietors, 6.1% ; independent artisans, 14.92% ; em-
ployees, 3.3% ; property owners, 4.89% ; students and members
of the liberal professions, 3.8%. ^ As regards the German social-

^Karl Kautsky, Ber Parteitag von Hannover, "Neue Zeit," anno xviii,
No. 1.
^Michels, Proletariato e BorgJiesia, etc., ed. cit., p. 136.

270 POLITICAL PARTIES

ist party, the writer has shown elsewhere* that in all the
branches the proportion of proletarians is yet greater than in
Italy, ranging from 77.4% to 94.7%. It may even be said, with
Blank, that if there is a party in which the proletarian element
predominates, it is the German socialist party — ^not indeed in re-
spect of its voting strength,^ but pre-eminently in respect of its
inscribed membership. It is this social homogeneity which ren-
ders the socialist party so great an electoral force, giving to it a
cohesion unknown to the other political parties, and especially
to the other parties of the left. German liberalism has always
been (at any rate since the unification of the empire) a multi-
coloured admixture of classes, united not so much by economic
needs as by common ideal aims. Socialism, on the other hand,
derives its human materials from the only class which presents
those economic, social, and numerical conditions requisite to fur-
nish the greatest possible vigour for the struggle to overthrow
the old world and to instal a new one in its place. Blind indeed
must be he who fails to recognize that the spring which feeds
the socialist party in Germany, a spring which shows no signs
of running dry, is the proletariat, the class of wage-labourers.

We must therefore accept with all reserve the statements of
those anarchizing socialists and bourgeois radicals who accuse
the socialist party of ''embourgeoisement" because it contains a
certain number of small manufacturers and small traders. The
embourgeoisement of the party is an unquestionable fact, but its
causes will be found in a process very different from the entry
into the organizations of the fighting proletariat of a few hun-
dred members of the middle class. The chief of these causes is
the metamorphosis which takes place in the leaders of working-
class origin, with the resulting embourgeoisement of the whole
atmosphere in which the political activities of the party are
carried on.^

*Michels, Die deuische SozialdemoTcratie. Parteimitgliedschaft u. soziale
Zusammensetsung, "Archiv f. Sozialwiss., " vol, xxiii, pp. 471-559.

^E. Blank, Die sociale Zusammensetsung der sosialdemokratischen Wah-
lerschaft DeutscMands, "Archiv f. Sozialwiss., " vol. xx, fasc. 3; but the
author is wrong in drawing the conclusion (p. 535) "that the German
social democracy is not a class party in respect of composition." He
should have said, "In respect of the composition of the socialist elec-
torate. ' '

^Parvus writes: "There is a confusion between two distinct things: the
petty bourgeois existences which are created by the party movement, and
the entrance of petty bourgeois elements into the party. These should

RESULTS OF ORGANIZATION 271

2. Labour Organization as the Creator of New Petty Bourgeois

Strata.

The class struggle, through, the action of the organs whereby
it is carried out, induces modifications and social metamorphoses
in the party which has come into existence to organize and con-
trol the struggle. Certain groups of individuals, numerically
insignificant but qualitatively of great importance, are with-
drawn from the proletarian class and raised to bourgeois dignity.

Where, as in Italy, the party of the workers contains a con-
siderable proportion of bourgeois, most of the posts which the
party has at its disposal are in the hands of intellectuals. In
England, on the other hand, and still more in Germany, it is
otherwise, for here the demand on the part of the socialist move-
ment for employees is met chiefly by a supply of persons from
the rank and file. In these countries the party leadership is
mainly in the hands of the workers, as is shown by the follow-
ing table : —

SOCIALIST GEOIJP IN THE EEICHSTAG, 1903-6.

By Okigin. By Peofession.

I. Intellectuals and Bourgeois. . 13 I. Professional men 17

II. Petty Bourgeois 15 II. Independent means 2

< — ! Manufacturers 1

Publishers 2

Bourgeois 5

III. Proletarians: III. Petty Bourgeois:

Textile 3 Innkeepers 6

Tobacco 8 Independent artisans and

Printing 7 working employers .... 6

Tailoring 3 Small shopkeepers 3

Glass-blowing 2 Small manufacturers 5

Masonry 1 Owners of printing works. 4

Lithography 1 — '

Basket-work 1 Petty lourgeois 24

Glove-makiag 1

be separately considered ' ' (Parvus, Die Gewerkschaften und die Sosialdemo-
hratie Kritischer BericM iiber die Lager u. die Aufgaben der deutschen
Arbeiterbewegung, "Sachs. Arbeiterzeitung, " Dresden, 1896, 2nd ed., p.
65).

272 POLITICAL PAKTIES

III. Proletarians (continued) :

Saddlery 1

Stone-cutting 1

Turning 1

Carpet-weaving 1

Bootmaking 1

Wood-working 10 IV. Employees in the labour

Bookbinding 1 movement 35

Mining 2 —

Metallurgy 6

Brush-making 1

Pottery 1

Manual worlcers 53

Bt Origin.

%

13 intellectuals and bour-
geois = 16.05

15 petty bourgeois = 18.52

54 proletarians (sMlled

worlcers) = 65.43

By Profession.

17 professional men.

5 bourgeois

24 petty bourgeois. .
35 employees

%
= 20.99
— 6.17
= 29.63
= 43.21

Consequently an entry into the party hierarchy becomes an
aim of proletarian ambition.

An ex-member of the German socialist party who some years
ago, having entered the service of one of the bourgeois parties,
amused himself by caricaturing his former comrades, declared
that the whole party organization with all its various degrees of
propagandist activity was ''cut upon the military model," and
that the members were ' ' promoted by seniority. ' ' '^ There is at
least this much truth in Abel's assertion, that to every member
of the party the possibility of gradual advance remains open,
and that each may hope, should circumstances prove exception-
ally favourable, to scale the olympian heights of a seat in the
Reichstag.

Proletarian leaders of the socialist parties and of the trade
unions are an indirect product of the great industry. At the
dawn of the capitalist era certain workers, more intelligent and
more ambitious than their fellows, succeeded^ through indefat-
igable exertions and thanks to favourable circumstances, in rais-
ing themselves to the employing class. To-day, however, in view
of the concentration of enterprise and wealth and of the high
cost of production, such a transformation can be observed only in

Abel, quoted by "Vorwarts," August 5, 1904.

RESULTS OF OKGANIZATION 273

certain parts of Nortli and SoutK America (wliich explains, it
may be mentioned in passing, the insignificant development of
socialism in the New World). As far as Europe is concerned,
where there is no longer any virgin soil to exploit, the "self-
made man" has become a prehistoric figure. Thus it is natural
that enlightened workmen should seek some compensation for
the lost paradise of their dreams. Numerous are to-day the
workers whose energies and aptitudes are not fully utilized in
the narrow circle of their professional occupations, often utterly
uninteresting and demanding purely mechanical labour.® It is
chiefly in the modern labour movement that such men now seek
and obtain the opportunity of improving their situation, an op-
portunity which industry no longer offers. The movement rep-
resents for them a new and loftier mode of life, and offers at
the same time a new branch of employment, with a chance, which
continually increases as the organization grows, that they will
be able to secure a rise in the social scale. There can be no doubt
that the socialist party, with its posts of honour, which are al-
most always salaried, exercises a potent stimulus upon active-
minded youths of the working class from the very outset of their
adhesion to its ranks. Those who are keen in political matters,
and also those among the workers who possess talent as writers
or speakers, cannot fail to experience the magnetic influence of a
party which offers so rich a field for the use and development of
their talents. Consequently we must accept as a logical truth
what was pointed out by Guglielmo Ferrero, that whilst the ad-
hesion of anyone of proletarian origin to the socialist party al-
ways presupposes a certain minimum of special aptitudes and
favourable circumstances, yet such adhesion must be considered
desirable and advantageous, not only upon ideal grounds and
from motives of class egoism, but also for speculative reasons of
personal egoism. For an intelligent German workman there is
hardly any other way which offers him such rapid opportunities
of "improving his condition" as service in the socialist army.^
One of the first persons to recognize the bearing of these possi-
bilities, and to utilize them, with considerable partisan exag-
geration, for his own peculiar political ends, was Prince Bis-
marck. During the violent struggle between the government and

^Heinrieli Herkner, Vie Arheiterfrage, ed. eit., p. 186; as regards Italy,
'Angelo Mosso, Vita moderna degli Italiani, Treves, Milan, 1906, pp. 249,
262-3.

^Guglielmo Ferrero, L'Europa giovane, ed. cit., pp. 72 et seq.

274 POLITICAL PARTIES

the socialist party he declared: "The position of socialist agi-
tator has to-day become a regular industry, just like any other.
A man becomes an agitator or a popular orator as in former
days he became a smith or a carpenter. One who adopts this
new occupation is often much better off than if he had kept at
his old work, gaining a more agreeable and freer life, one which
in certain circles brings him more respect. ' ' ^° The allusion to
the agreeable and free life of the socialist agitator recalls a
phrase used by William II, who, apropos of the Krupp affair,
spoke of the "safe ambush" from which socialist editors could
shoot their carefully aimed arrows of calumny. The emperor's
criticism is unjust, for the socialist editor who departs from the
truth is always exposed to the risk of prosecution and punish-
ment. Bismarck hit the right nail on the head.

A gigantic and magnificently organized party like the Ger-
man socialist party has need of a no less gigantic apparatus of
editors, secretaries, bookkeepers, and numerous other employees,
whose sole task is to serve this colossal machine. Mutatis mutaiv-
dis the same is true of the other great branch of the working-
class movement, the trade-union organizations. Now, for the rea-
sons that have previously been discussed, there are available for
the service of the German labour movement no more than a very
small number of refugees from the bourgeoisie. It is for this
reason that most of the posts are filled by men of working-class
origin, who by zeal and by study have succeeded in gaining the
confidence of their comrades. It may, then, be said that there
exists a proletarian elite which arises spontaneously by a process
of natural selection within the socialist party, and that its mem-
bers come to perform functions altogether different from those
which they originally exercised. To make use of a phrase which
is convenient and comprehensible despite its lack of scientific
precision, we may say that such men have abandoned manual
work to become brain- workers. For those who make such a
change considerable advantages accrue, altogether independent
of the advantages which attach per se to mental work when com-
pared to manual. The manual worker who has become an official
of the socialist party is no longer in a position of strictly per-
sonal and purely mercenary dependence upon his employer or
upon the manager of the factory; he has become a free man,

^"Speech in the Eeichstag, October 9, 1878. Cf. Furst Bismarck's Beden,
mit verbind gescMcMlicher Darstellung von PMlipp Stein, Eeclam, Leip-
zig, vol. viii, p. 110.

RESULTS OF ORGANIZATION 275

engaged in intellectual work on behalf of an impersonal enter-
prise. Moreover, he is bound to this enterprise, not solely by
his strongest material interests, but also by the powerful ties of
the ideal and of solidarity in the struggle. And notwithstanding
certain exceptions which may confuse the minds of the profane,
he is treated far more humanely than by any private employer.
In relation to the party the employee is not a simple wage-
earner, but rather a profit-sharing associate — not, of course, a
profit-sharer in the industrial sense, since the party is not a com-
mercial undertaking for the earning of dividends, but a profit-
sharer in the ideal sense. It is not suggested that the party
employee earns his bread in the most pleasant way in the world.
On the contrary, as has been said in earlier chapters,^^ the daily
breads which with rare exceptions is not unduly plentiful, must
be earned by the fulfilment of an enormous amount of labour,
prematurely exhausting health and energy. Nevertheless the
ex-manual worker can live with dignity and comparative ease.
Since he has a fixed salary, his position is more secure, and
though outwardly more stormy, it is inwardly more tranquil,
than that of the ordinary wage-earner. Should he be imprisoned,
the party cares for him and his dependents, and the more often
he is prosecuted the better become his chances of rapid advance-
ment in his career of socialist official with all the advantages
attaching to the position.

We may here consider the interesting question. What is the
numerical ratio between the socialist bureaucracy and the organ-
ized masses; how many comrades are there for each party offi-
cial? If we include in the term ''official" all the mandataries
of the party in the communes, etc., most of whom are unpaid,
we sometimes attain to surprising results. For example, the
socialist organization of the grand duchy of Baden, with a mem-
bership ( 1905) of 7,332, had more than 1,000 municipal coun-
cillors.^^ According to these figures, every seventh member of
the Badenese party had the honour of being a party representa-
tive. This example, however, was quoted by the executive in its
report to the congress of Jena precisely on account of its abnor-
mality. Even though it may not be unique in southern Ger-
many, it does not in truth bear upon the question we are now
considering, which is the numerical relation between the enrolled

" Cf . pp. 57, 115.

^FrotokoU d. Verhandl. d. Farteitags su Jena, 1905, p. 16.

276 POLITICAL PARTIES

membership and the party employees in the strict sense of the
term, considered as a group of persons permanently and directly
engaged in the service of the collectivity. The following figures
give some idea of this ratio. According to a notice which in 1904
went the round of the German socialist pres^/^ the party at that
time employed, in addition to 1,476 persons engaged in the party
printing establishment (about two-thirds of whom enjoyed the
benefits of the eight-hour day, whilst many also had the right to
regular holidays), 329 individuals working on the editorial staff
and as delivery agents. The daily socialist press had in 1909 a
circulation of one million, whilst the trade-union journals, weekly
for the most part, had a far higher circulation.^* Alike in the
trade unions and in the socialist party the number of paid em-
ployees is rapidly increasing. The first regularly appointed and
paid leaders in the European labour movement were the officials
nominated in 1840 by the English Ironf ounders ' Society. To-day
in the trade-union organizations of the United Kingdom there
are more than one thousand salaried employees.^^ In Germany,
in the year 1898, the number of trade-union officials was 104;
in 1904 it was 677, of whom 100 belonged to the metal-workers
and 70 to the bricklayers and masons' union. This increase in
the officialdom is accelerated, not merely by the steady increase
in the membership, but also by the increasing complexity of the
benefits offered by the organizations. Almost every meeting of
the central executive discusses and determines upon the appoint-
ment of new officials, rendered essential by the further differen-
tiation of the trade-union functions.^° There are always found
advocates for the creation of fresh specialized posts in the la-
bour movement, to fulfil various technical offices^ to keep abreast
of new discoveries and advances in methods of manufacture, to
check the returns made by factory employers, to act as econo-
mists and compile trade statistics. ^'^

For some years past the same tendency has been manifest in
the German socialist party. According to the report of the ex-
ecutive for the year 1909, very many district organizations now
employ salaried secretaries. The number of district secretaries

^^ ' ' Mitteldeutsche Sonntagszeitung, ' ' xi. No. 14.

"Karl Kautsky, Der Weg sur MacM, ''Vorwarts," Berlin, 1909, p. 56.

" Fausto Pagliari, Le Organ, e i loro Impiegati, ed. cit., pp. 8-9.

" Ernst Deinhardt, Das Beamtenelement im, den deutscJien GewerTcschaf-
ten, "Sozial Monatsh.," ix (xi), fasc. 12, p. 1019.

" Adolph Braun, GewerTcschaf tUche Verfassungsfragen, ' ' Neue Zeit, ' '
xxix, No. 89.

RESULTS OF ORGANIZATION 277

is 43, whilst in a single year the number of secretaries of con-
stituencies increased from 41 to 62.^^ There is a mutual aid so-
ciety for officials of the socialist party and of the trade unions,
and its membership continually increases. In 1902 it had 433
members; in 1905, 1,095; in 1907, 1,871; and in 1909, 2,474. But
there must be officials who are not members of the society.^''

"When he abandons manual work for intellectual, the worker
undergoes another transformation which involves his whole ex-
istence. He gradually leaves the proletariat to become a member
of the petty bourgeois class. At first, as we have seen, there is
no more than a change in his professional and economic situa-
tion. The salaries paid by the party, although modest, are dis-
tinctly greater than the average wage which the worker gained
before his entry into the socialist bureaucracy, and are calcu-
lated to enable the recipients to lead a petty bourgeois life. In
one of the German socialist congresses, "Wilhelm Liebknecht
apostrophized the other leaders in the following terms: "You
are for the most part aristocrats among the workers — aristocrats,
I mean, in respect of income. The workers in the Erzgebirge or
the weavers of Silesia would regard the salaries you earn as the
income of a Crcesus. " ^° It is true, at least in the majority of
cases, that the career of the party or trade-union employee does
not positively transform the ex-manual worker into a capitalist.^^
Yet this career effects a notable elevation of the worker above
the class to which he primarily belonged,^^ and in Germany there

^ProtoJcoll d. Ver. d. Parteitags su Leipzig, "Vorwarts," Berlin, 1909,
p. 20. — Similar phenomena may be observed in Italy, cf. supra, p. 125.

"Adolf Weber, Kapital und Arbeit, ed. cit., p. 389.

^^ ProtoTcoll des Parteitags zu Berlin, 1892, p. 122.

^ It may be noted that the bourgeois aspect of certain positions to which
the former manual worker attains, thanks to the party, is apparent rather
than real. Thus, certain German socialist leaders are described as being
by civil status ' ' owners of printing works, ' ' when they are in reality no
more than the legal proprietors of undertakings belonging to the party,
and receive, in addition to the salary properly payable for the work in
which they are engaged, no more than a percentage on the profits of the
undertaking.

^ It is obvious that those proletarians who have become members of the
Reichstag, and whose speeches display a technical knowledge of working-
class life, cannot remain manual workers. It is impossible to be working
as a bricklayer at three o'clock and at four to give a speech in parliament
upon stock-exchange legislation. Parliamentary life requires study and ex-
pert knowledge, and the work of party leadership involves a man's whole
activities. For economic reasons, too, it is impossible for the parliamentary
representative to remain in the working class. The attempt to combine

278 POLITICAL PARTIES

is applied to the existence led by such persons the sociologically
precise term of gehohene Arheiter exist enz (a working-class life
on a higher scale). Karl Marx himself did not hesitate to class-
ify the working-class leaders under two heads, as hoherklassige
(workers of a superior class, intellectual workers) and Arheiter
(manual workers properly speaking) .^^ As we shall show in
fuller detail in a subsequent chapter,^* the manual worker of
former days becomes a petty bourgeois or even a bourgeois. In
addition to this metamorphosis, and despite his frequent contact
with the mass of the workers, he undergoes a profound psycho-
logical transformation. The paid official, living at a higher so-
cial level, will not always possess the moral strength to resist
the seductions of his new environment. His political and social
education will seldom suffice to immunize him against the new
influences. August Bebel repeatedly drew the attention of the
party to the dangers by which the leaders were beset, the risks
to their class purity and to their unity of thought. The prole-
tarian party-officials, he said, are "persons whose life has be-
come established upon a comparatively stable basis. ' ' ^^

A closer examination will show that the phenomenon here con-
sidered has a profound social significance, and that neither with-
in nor without the party has it hitherto received the attention it
deserves. For the German workers, the labour movement has an
importance analogous to that of the Catholic Church for certain
fractions of the petty bourgeoisie and of the rural population.
In both eases we have an organization which furnishes oppor-
tunities to the most intelligent members of certain classes to
secure a rise in the social scale. In the Church, the peasant's
son will often succeed in achieving social advance, whose equiv-
alent in all the other liberal professions has remained the mo-
nopoly of members of the aristocracy of birth or of wealth. No
one of peasant birth becomes a general or a prefect^ but not a
few peasants become bishops. Pope Pius X was of peasant ori-
gin. Now that which the Church offers to peasants and to petty

manual labour with parliamentary has always failed. Until a few years
ago, until June, 1906, in the Badenese diet there was a member who was
still engaged as a factory hand, but one day his employer said that he
really could not any longer find employment for a representative of the
people.

^^Karl Marx, Brief e u. Aussuge, etc., ed. eit., p. 159.

^Part IV, chap. v.

^ August Bebel, speaking at the Dresden congress, 1903. Frotokoll uber
die Verhandlungen des Parteitags, "Vorwarts," Berlin, 1903, p. 230.

KESULTS OF ORGANIZATION 279

bourgeois, namely, a facility for ascent in the social scale, is
offered to intelligent manual workers by the socialist party.

As a source of social transformations the socialist party has
many affinities with another institution, namely, the Prussian
military organization. The son of a bourgeois family who adopts
a permanent military career becomes a stranger to his own class.
Should he attain to high rank, he will receive a title from the
emperor. He loses his bourgeois characteristics and adopts the
usages and opinions of his new feudal environment. It is true
that these military officers are only manifesting the tendency to
the attainment of "gentility" in which the whole bourgeoisie is
involved,^® but in their case this process is greatly accelerated,
and is effected with a full consciousness of its consequences.
Every year hundreds of young men from the upper and middle
strata of the bourgeois class become officers in the army, simply
from the desire to secure a higher position and more social con-
sideration. ^'^ In the socialist party a similar effect is often the
result of necessity, the individual's social metamorphosis taking
place independently of the will. But the general results are
similar.

Thus the socialist party gives a lift to certain strata of the
working class. The more extensive and the more complicated
its bureaucratic mechanism, the more numerous are those raised
by this machine above their original social position. It is the
involuntary task of the socialist party to remove from the prole-
tariat, to deproletarianize, some of the most capable and best
informed of its members. Now, according to the materialist con-
ception of history, the social and economic metamorphosis grad-
ually involves a metamorphosis in the realm^ of ideas.^^ The
consequence is that in many of the ex-workers this embourgeoise-
ment is very rapidly effected. Naturally the change is less speedy
in proportion as socialist theory is more deeply rooted in the
mind of the individual. Numerous are those manual workers
who, having attained a higher social and economic situation,
none the less remain throughout their lives profoundly attached

==« Franz Mehring: "It is distressing that at a time when the army can-
not exist without bourgeois money and bourgeois intelligence, the bourgeois
youth should have no higher ambition than to force his way into the
feudal caste" {Ber Krieg gegen die Troddeln, "Leipziger Volkszeitung, "
xi, No. 4).

" Cf . supra, p. 14.

=^Cf. August Bebel's speech to the Dresden congress to which refer-
ence has already been made (ProtoTcoll, loe. cit.).

280 POLITICAL PARTIES

to the socialist cause. In this case, however, the ex-manual
worker is, just like the ex-bourgeois socialist, an ''ideologue,"
since his mentality does not correspond to his position in society.
Sometimes, again, the psychological metamorphosis we are con-
sidering is, as it were, inhibited by a tenacious and vigorous
hereditary socialist mentality: 'here we see the children and
grandchildren following their parents as whole-hearted combat-
ants on behalf of the labour party, notwithstanding the elevated
position to which they have attained. Experience shows, how-
ever, that such cases are exceptional. Even when the deprole-
tarianized socialist remains a sincere advocate of proletarian
emancipation, and grows grey in his position of socialist editor
or deputy, his children, sons as well as daughters, are thorough-
going members of the higher social class into which they have
been removed by the improvement in their father's social posi-
tion, and this not merely in the material sense, but in respect of
their ideas, so that it becomes impossible to distinguish them from
their fellow-bourgeois.^^ In most cases the only bond which re-
mains to attach the father to the working class, his faith in the
politico-social dogma of socialism, is slackened in the son to be-
come an absolute indifference and sometimes an open hostility to
socialism. To sum up, it may be said that these former working-
class people, considered as families and not as individuals, are
absorbed sooner or later into the new bourgeois environment.
The children receive a bourgeois education; they attend better
schools than those to which their father had access ; ^° their in-
terests are bourgeois and they very rarely recall the revolution-
ary and anti-bourgeois derivation of their own entrance into the
bourgeoisie. The working-class families which have been raised
by the revolutionary workers to a higher social position, for the

*'It need hardly be said that this phenomenon is not universal. We
observe certain cases in which the children of ex-manual vrorkers who have
become ofl&cials of the socialist party either desire of their own initiative to
become ordinary wage-earners or are forced to do so by the insufficiency
of their father's salary, which, especially when the family is a large one,
does not suffice to give the children an education "suitable to their new
status." There are certain socialist deputies and journalists whose sons
have to earn their living as factory hands and whose daughters are ballet-
dancers.

^°A German trade-union employee whose education had been greatly
inferior to that of his colleagues, and who, as he himself put it, had
never attained to any ease in the right use of the dative and accusative
cases, said to me about his son: "I shall be able to send him to the
Eealgymnasium. My means will run to that now ! ' '

RESULTS OF OKGANIZATION 281

purpose of a more effective struggle against the bourgeoisie, thus
come before long to be fused with the bourgeoisie.^^

Eeference has previously been made to a similar phenomenon
in the case of the families of working-class leaders who are refu-
gees from the class of bourgeois intellectuals.^^ The final result
is the same, the only difference being that the children of the
ex-manual workers forget their class of origin, whilst the chil-
dren of the bourgeois intellectuals recall it. The result is that
in the history of the labour movement we may observe a similar
irony to that which may be seen in the history of the bourgeois
resistance to the workers. The bourgeoisie has not been able to
prevent a number of the best instructed, most capable, and most
adroit among its elements from placing themselves at the head
of the mortal enemies of the bourgeoisie; it is often these ex-
bourgeois who stimulate the proletarians to resistance and organ-
ize them for the struggle. The proletariat suffers a similar fate.
In the severe struggle it has undertaken for the expropriation
of the expropriators, it elevates from the depths of its own class
those who have the finest intelligences and the keenest vision, by
serious collective sacrifices gives them the pen to use in place
of ruder tools, and in doing so it throws into the arms of the
enemy those who have been selected with the express purpose of
fighting the privileged class. If the chosen combatants do not
themselves go over to the enemy, their children at least will do
so. This is indeed a tragical destiny: ex-bourgeois on the one
side, and ex-manual workers on the other. The imposing politi-

'^It is by no means uncommon to find that the sons of noted socialist
leaders, when they do not avoid all political activity and exhibit a disin-
clination to the discussion of political problems, frequently display them-
selves in public as the most violent opponents of socialism. Among such
opponents, in Germany, we have a son of the socialist deputy Karl Ulrich
(who was a metal-worker before he entered the party bureaucracy) ; a son
of the late socialist leader Wilhelm Bracke, the barrister Bracke of Breslau,
who belongs to the extreme right and is a member of the Eeichsverband
zur Bekampfung der Sozialdemokratie (anti-socialist league) ; and there
are other instances. Sometimes it is doubtless the outcome of unhappy
family relationships that the children of socialists follow other paths than
the fathers: the bourgeois family of the socialist leader persists in its old
anti-socialist views, in which the pater-familias has been unable to effect
any change. The wife and daughter of Jean Jaures, the anti-clerical, for
example, are strict Catholics. The daughter for a long time cherished the
idea of entering a convent, hoping by this sacrifice to avert God's anger
which would otherwise be visited upon her father on account of his
political activities.

^ Cf . supra, p. 250.

282 POLITICAL PARTIES

cal contest between the classes representing respectively capital
and labour ends, however paradoxical this may appear, in a
manner analogous with that which in the sphere of economic
competition is determined through the operation of supply and
demand, speculation, personal adroitness, etc. — in a social ex-
change among the classes. It is hardly necessary to repeat that
this interchange of the ripples on the surface of the waves does

I not weaken, and far less annul, the profundity of social antag-

I onisms. It is obvious that the process of social exchange can on
either side affect no more than infinitesimal minorities. But it

|. affects the most influential, and herein lies its sociological im-

U portance. It affects the self-made leaders.

3. Capitalist Defence as the Creator of New Petty Bourgeois

Strata.

The embourgeoisement of certain strata of the working-class
party has other factors in addition to the influence of the bu-
reaucratic apparatus of the socialist party, the trade unions, and
the cooperative societies. This development, which is a neces-
sary characteristic of every movement towards emancipation, is
to a certain extent paralleled by the constitution of a petty bour-
geoisie of strongly proletarian characteristics, itself also devel-
oped from below upwards, itself also an accessory phenomenon
of the struggle of the organized workers for social emancipation,
but which takes place outside the various forms of socialist or-
ganization. We allude to those proletarian elements which be-
come particularly numerous in times of crisis, when the labour
organizations are still weak and persecuted, as was the case in
Germany during the days of the anti-socialist law. At such
times numerous proletarians are victimized, it may be on account
of their passive fidelity to party or trade union, it may be be-
cause their attitude is frankly socialist and "subversive."
Forced by necessity, these victims of capitalist reprisals have
no other resource than to adopt some form of independent enter-
prise. Abandoning their ancient handicraft, they open a small
shop, fruit and vegetables, stationery, grocery, or tobacco; they
become pedlars, keep a coffee-stall, or the like.^^ In most cases

^^Eiehard Calwer (Das Tcommunistische Manifest, etc., ed. cit., pp. 8 et
seq.) inveighs with especial vigour against these petty bourgeois socialists.
He makes the caustic observation: "To-day a man's every need, from
clothing to cigars, can be supplied at petty bourgeois socialist establish-
ments." No doubt he is aiming also at the cooperatives.

RESULTS OF ORGANIZATION 283

their ancient associates support them with admirable solidarity,
regarding it as a duty to assist these unfortunate comrades by
giving them their custom. It sometimes happens that some of
these new petty bourgeois find their way definitely into the mid-
dle class. Thus capitalist resistance has automatically created
new strata of petty bourgeois.

In addition to these victims of the struggle for proletarian
emancipation, there are not a few workers who leave their class,
not from necessity, but influenced to a large extent by the love
of speculation and the desire to improve their social position.
Thus there has come into existence a whole army of ex-prole-
tarians, petty bourgeois and small shopkeepers, who all claim,
in virtue of a superior moral right, that the comrades must sup-
port them by dealing exclusively at their establishments. The
mode of life of these small traders often reduces them, despite
all their good wishes, to the level of social parasites ; their com-
mand of capital being extremely small, the goods they offer to
their customers, that is to say to the organized workers, are both
bad and dear.

Still more important in German socialism is the role of those
who are termed Parteibudiger, that is to say tavern-keepers who
are members of the party. During the prevalence of the anti-
socialist law their political mission was of incontestable impor-
tance. In many small towns the tavern-keepers belonging to
the party still exercise multifarious and important functions. It
is in their houses that the executive committee meets; often
these are the only places where socialist and trade-union jour-
nals are found on the tables ; and in many cases, since the own-
ers of other halls are hostile or timid, it is here alone that public
meetings can be held. In a word, they are necessary instru-
ments in the local socialist struggle.^* In the more important
centres, however, these places, with their unhygienic environ-
ment, become a veritable curse to the party. It may be added
that the brutal struggle for existence leads the petty bourgeois

^We owe to the pens of foreign observers some vigorous descriptions
of the life of these Parteikneipen, a life not devoid of psychological in-
terest. Among these we may refer to La Democratie socialiste allemande,
by Edgard Milhaud, professor of political economy at the University of
Geneva, a French socialist (pp. 148 et seq.) ; also to the work of Otto Von
Leixner, which dates back to the days of the anti- socialist law {Sosiale
Brief e, ed. cit., p. 325) — but this writer of feuilletons gives us a picture
which is too highly coloured.

284 POLITICAL PARTIES

tavern-keepers to exercise improper pressure upon the socialist
organizations. They enjoy a considerable influence among the
comrades, and this pressure is commonly exerted in a manner
directly injurious to the interests of the proletariat. The at-
tempts which have been made in Germany, especially since 1890,
to induce the workers to abandon the unwholesome rooms of the
old taverns and to frequent the great modern establishments
with fine airy halls, have led, as was inevitable, to **a vigorous
opposition" on the part of the socialist tavern-keepers.^^ For
many years the members of the party whose living is made by
the sale of drink have energetically resisted the foundation of
"People's Houses"; notwithstanding the sympathy for such in-
stitutions they may theoretically possess, they dread this new
form of competition, and act in accordance with their immediate
personal interests. In most cases their opposition has proved
ineffectual.^® Not always, however. Even to-day there exist
German towns with from twenty thousand to thirty thousand
inhabitants in which the existence of a ParteiJcneipe (which de-
spite its name of "Party tavern" is the exclusive property of
some individual member of the party) has proved an insuperable
obstacle in the way of the local labour organizations when they
have desired to build a place of their own, or even to obtain
from other and non-socialist innkeepers the use of a more com-
modious hall for their meetings.

For an additional reason, these socialist taverns are calamitous
in their influence upon the party, in that they oppose a potent
obstacle to the extension of the temperance movement which has
been initiated during recent years.^^ It is no secret in socialist

^E. Calwer, op. cit., p. 9.

^The "Korrespondenzblatt" of the General Committee published in 1906
(No. 29) statistics regarding the activity of GewerJcschaftsJcartelle (Trades'
Councils), from which we cull the following details. A GewerTcscTiaftshaus
(an establishment belonging to the trade unions) exists in the following
localities: Berlin, Brunswick, Breslau, Cassel, Charlottenburg, Cologne, Dres-
den, Elberfeld, Feuerbach, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Hanau, Heidelberg, Kiel,
Leipzig, Liegnitz, Mannheim, Miihlhausen in Thuringia, Offenbach-on-the
Main, Plauen in Vogtland, Solingen, Stettin, Stralsund, Stuttgart, Treves,
Wilhelmshaven, and Zittau. Even when these places, which are often
called "People's Houses," are not the exclusive property of the Trades
Councils, they owe their existence in great part to the local trade unions,
and in some cases also to the socialist party. It should be observed that
the productive and distributive cooperative societies, being in Germany
strictly neutral in political matters, play no part in these undertakings.

" To the delegates at the socialist congress of Jena was given a number

RESULTS OF ORGANIZATION 285

circles that long before tlie congress of Essen (1907) the party
would have declared openly against alcoholism, and that after
this congress it would have applied its decisions with greater
vigour, had not the party leaders been restrained by the fear

of "Der abstinente Arbeiter, " the official organ of the League of Abstinent
Workers, edited by Georg Davidsohn, from which the following passage may
be quoted: "The Socialist Publicans' Association of Berlin has been asked
on two occasions whether its members desired a conference upon the sub-
ject of public-house reform. No answer was ever received! — Comrade M.
subsequently enquired on three separate occasions whether the Association
would not like to take part in such a conference, imagining that he had
to deal with impartial and objective-minded comrades, who would no longer
continue to ignore a question so closely touching their own interests, unless
they wished grave misunderstandings to arise between two organizations
within the framework of the party. But again no answer was received!

' ' The president of the Charlottenburg section of the League of Free Pub-
licans was in favour of discussion of the subject, but the meeting refused
to consider it! Do the dealers in alcohol then imagine that they can in this
way prevent the spread of the teetotal movement, that they can set back the
hands of the world's clock? This is as little possible to them as it is to
others, and if they continue to shut their eyes to the forward movement,
it is they alone who will have to pay the price.

* ' A most serious incident, which throws a strong light upon the pernicious
influence exercised upon the life of our party by certain socialist publicans,
may be described in a few plain words. On August 22nd was held in Berlin
the party meeting to decide upon the subjects for discussion at the Jena
congress. In the fourth electoral district of Berlin our comrades had been
engaged in an excellent work of preparation, distributing among those
present at the meeting about 600 leaflets and a number of pamphlets upon
the drink question. Here could be observed a thing which three years ago
would have seemed barely conceivable. On almost every table were bottles
of seltzer water and the waiters could hardly get around fast enough to
supply the demand for this beverage. The sentiment of the meeting, there-
fore, could not fail to be favourable to our two proposals (one presented
by district 167A, whilst the other was backed by numerous signatures just
obtained from among those present at the meeting) to have the alcohol
question placed upon the agenda of the next congress. But who can count
upon fortune! One proposal after another was read and discussed, without
any mention being made of ours. I had already risen to propose our
motion. All of a sudden, however, the chairman, a publican, declared that
the discussion of the proposals was concluded and that the delegates to
the congress were now to be elected ! I demanded that our proposals should
be read. But the chairman ruled that it was 'too late' and the names of
delegates were already being sent in. Our proposals, which were differ-
entiated from the others by being printed in a larger format, had (both of
them as luck would have it!) iDeen 'by an oversight' slipped beneath a
newspaper, so that the chairman and his two assessors (all of whom had
read the proposals before the meeting was opened) had overlooked them
and forgotten them! In answer to my remonstrances the chairman promised
that he would endeavour to bring the matter up for discussion after the

286 POLITICAL PARTIES

that the measures recommended, and even a simple temperance
propaganda, would react injuriously upon the interests of an
influential category of the members of the party.

It is impossible to determine with any accuracy the number
of individuals who have become independent petty bourgeois as
the outcome of the struggles of the workers and the political
reprisals of the employers. Tobacconists, grocers, etc., elude
statistical investigation. The only definite information we pos-
sess relates to tavern-keepers. In the parliamentary group we
find that in 1892, of 35 socialist deputies, 4 were publicans
(11.4%); in 1903, of 58 socialist deputies, 5 were publicans
(8.6%) ; and in 1906, of 81 socialist deputies, 6 were publicans
(7.4%). In the local socialist sections, the proportion of tavern-
keepers is considerable. At Leipzig, in 1887, there were 30
Parteikneipen. In 1900, among the socialist branches of the
Leipzig country districts with 4,855 members there were 84 res-
taurant-keepers and publicans (1.7%); in Leipzig city, where
the socialists numbered 1,681, there were in 1900, 47 tavern-
keepers, and in 1905, 63 (3.4%). Offenbach, in 1905, 1,668 mem-
bers, 74 publicans and 2 retailers of bottled beer (4.6%). Mu-
nich, in 1906, 6,704 members ; milk-retailers, tobacconists, sellers
of cheese, etc., and publicans (wine merchants not included), 369
(5.5%). Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 1906, 2,620 members, 25
publicans (12 retailers of bottled beer and tobacconists excluded
— approximately 1%). Marburg, in 1906, 114 members, 2 pub-
licans (1.8%). Reinickendorf-Ost, near Berlin, in 1906, 303
members, 18 tavern- and restaurant-keepers (5.9%). These fig-
ures serve to show that in certain towns there is a socialist pub-
lican for every twenty members. Since the socialist publican
depends mainly upon socialist customers, it follows thai; these
twenty comrades must provide the chief financial resources of
the enterprise.

The best proof of the numerical strength and the importance

delegates had been elected. But in the circumstances this was impossible;
it was already after midnight, so that when the election was over, and
even before the chairman could close the meeting, the comrades were all
streaming out of the door. The only thing the chairman could answer
to our complaints was: 'Oh, well, such proposals have been brought for-
ward in vain year after year; they would have been rejected again as
usual. ' Such are the arguments used by a comrade who occupies a position
of trust in the labour movement. What a perspective does this open when
we remember that, at any rate here in East Berlin, the majority of our
party officials are publicans!" (Anno iii, No. 18.)

RESULTS OF ORGANIZATION 287

of this category of the members of the party is that they have
founded at Berlin a powerful association, the Berlin League
of Socialist Publicans and Innkeepers. It must not be forgotten
that this association has largely come into existence from the
consideration that the socialist publicans have other political
tasks to fulfil from those which devolve upon their "bourgeois"
colleagues, nor can it be denied that its members constitute a
category of chosen socialists of tried fidelity, who have rendered
important services to the party in its political campaigns and
agitations, and whose socialist clientele is actuated by a high
spirit of solidarity in giving these comrades its custom. It is
inevitable, however, that the existence of such an organization,
which represents peculiar economic interests, should in certain
cases involve inconveniences, not merely for its competitors, the
bourgeois publicans, but also for the socialist comrades, and that
it should tend to assume the aspect of a party within the party.
In the summer of 1906, the increase in the cost of production of
beer, which resulted from new taxation by which the breweries
were especially hard hit, led the publicans to raise the price to
the consumers. Thereupon the German workers in a great many
towns protested most energetically, and declared what was
known as the "beer war," boycotting certain breweries and the
publicans who had raised the price — an agitation which led cer-
tain foreign socialists to observe sarcastically that you may take
anything from the German worker except his beer. In this
struggle, which was in many places conducted with great ob-
stinacy, the organized workers encountered resistance from a
notable proportion of socialist publicans. These, adopting a
tactical outlook estranged from socialist principles, endeavoured
to alarm the comrades by insisting upon the dangers of their
campaign, and by predicting that if the consumers should suc-
ceed in forcing the producers to bear the new taxes, the govern-
ment, delighted to find that these taxes were not pressing upon
the masses of the people but were borne only by a restricted
class of brewers and factory owners, would hasten to introduce
new and yet heavier taxation, which could not fail to affect the
consumers.

To sum up, it may be said that the petty bourgeois of prole-
tarian origin, although the conditions of their life are not as a
rule notably better than those of the proletarian strata from
which they derive, constitute in more than one respect, on ac-
count of the particular interests they represent, a. serious ob-

288 POLITICAL PARTIES

stacle to the forward march of the working-class legions. More-
over, it has to be remembered that the influence of this new
stratum impresses upon the party from the mental point of view
(in consequence of the new place which these elements occupy
in the general economic process) a markedly petty bourgeois
stamp.

CHAPTER IV

THE NEED FOR THE DIFFERENTIATION OF THE
WORKING CLASS

Every individual member of the vs^orking class cherishes the
hope of rising into a higher social sphere which will guarantee
to him a better and less restricted existence. The workman's
ideal is to become a petty bourgeois.^ To non-initiates and to
superficial observers the working-class members of the socialist
parties seem always to be petty bourgeois. The proletariat has
not been able to emancipate itself psychically from the social
environment in which it lives. For example, the German
worker, as his wages have increased, has acquired the disease
which is in the blood of the German petty bourgeoisie, the club-
mania. In every large town, and not a few small ones, there
is a swarm of working-class societies : gymnastic clubs, choral so-
cieties, dramatic societies; even smokers' clubs, bowling clubs,
rowing clubs, athletic clubs — all sorts of associations whose es-
sentially petty bourgeois character is not destroyed by the fact
that they sail under socialist colours. A bowling club remains
a bowling club even if it assumes the pompous name of "Sons
of Freedom Bowling Club."

Just as little as the bourgeoisie can the socialist workers be
regarded as a great homogeneous grey mass, although this con-
sideration does not modify the fact that since proletarians all
live by the sale of their only commodity, labour, the organized
socialist workers are, at least in theory, conscious of their own
unity in their common opposition to the owners of the means of
production and to the governmental representatives of these.

* According to Tullio Eossi Doria (Le Forse Democratiche ed il Pro-
gramma socialista, "Avanti," anno xiv, No. 30), every struggle for higher
wages has the same end in view. But as a rule the struggle for higher
wages is carried out by a trade union, and the aim of the trade uniona
is to secure a better position for the manual workers, not to make them
petty bourgeois. The organized workers as a whole desire to live like the
petty bourgeois, but not to fulfil the economic function of these. They
wish to remain manual workers.

289

290 POLITICAL PARTIES

Yet it cannot be denied that the actual system of manufacture
which unites under the same roof all the different categories of
workers employed in a modern establishment for the production
of railway-carriages, for instance, does not serve to overthrow
the barriers which separate the various sub-classes of workers.^
Nor is it less true, looking at the matter from the other side,
that there exists among the workers the sense of a need for
differentiation which will readily escape those who do not come
in personal contact with them. The kind of work, the rate of
wages, differences of race and climate, produce numerous shades
of difference alike in the mode of life and in the tastes of the
workers. As early as 1860 it was said: ''Entre ouvriers il y a
des categories et un classement aristocratique. Les imprimeurs
prennent la tete; les chiffonniers, les vidangeurs, les egoutiers
ferment la marehe. ' ' ^ Between the compositor and the casual
labourer in the same country there exist differences in respect
of culture and of social and economic status more pronounced
than those between the compositor in one country and the small
manufacturer in another.* The discrepancy between the differ-
ent categories of workers is plainly displayed even in the trade-
union movement. "We know, for example, that the policy of the
compositors' unions in Germany, France, and Italy differs from
that of the other unions, and also from that of the socialist
party, exhibiting a tendency towards the right, being more op-
portunist and more accommodating. In Germany, the composi-
tors' union has for its president a Rexhauser, and in France a
Keufer. "We observe, too, in the conduct of the diamond-work-
ers in Holland and in Belgium the same unsocialistic, unprole-
tarian, and particularist tendencies. The aristocratic elements of
the working class, the best paid, those who approximate most
closely to the bourgeoisie, pursue tactics of their own. In the ac-
tive work of the labour movement, the division of the organized
masses into different social strata is often plainly manifest.
Working-class history abounds in examples showing how certain
fractions or categories of the proletariat have, under the influ-
ence of interests peculiar to their sub-class, detached themselves

^Eudolf Broda and Julius Deutsch, Das moderne Proletariat, Eeimer,
Berlin, 1910, p. 73.

^Edmond About, Le Trogres, ed. cit., pp. 51-2.

* Cf . the interesting communication upon the increasing differentiation of
the working classes made by Hermann Herkner to the congress of the Verein
fiir Sozialpolitik held at Nuremberg in 1911 (Protolcoll, pp. 122 et seq.).

CLASS DIFFERENTIATION 291

from tlie great army of labour and made common cause witli the
bourgeoisie. Thus it happens, generally speaking, that the work-
ers in armaments factories have little sympathy with anti-mili-
tarist views. In the London congress of the Independent Labour
Party in 1910, the Woolwich delegate, largely representing the
view of the employees at Woolwich arsenal, expressed strong
dissent from the opinion of those delegates who had brought
forward a resolution in favour of a restriction of armaments
and of compulsory arbitration in international disputes.^ Again,
the check which was sustained at Venice by the general strike of
protest against the Tripolitan campaign was due to the opposi-
tion of a section of the arsenal workers.*' The very fact that
the cessation of work on May 1st is but a partial demonstration
renders it possible to divide the workers into two classes. One
consists of those who, thanks to better conditions of life and
other favourable circumstances, "can allow themselves the lux-
ury" of celebrating the 1st of May; the other comprises those
who by poverty or ill-fortune are compelled to remain at work.^

^ " Volksstimme, " 1910, No. 76, fourth supplement.

' Exaggeration must be avoided here, and it is desirable to point out that
in the election of March 1912 in the Venetian constituency in which the
arsenal is situated, notwithstanding all kinds of adverse pressure, two
thousand electors expressed their definite disapproval of the African cam-
paign by voting for the intransigeant socialist Musatti ("Avanti, " anno
xvi. No. 85),

' The phrase quoted in the text is used by a correspondent of the ' ' Volks-
stimme, " of Frankfort (Die Maifeier am ersten Maisonntag, Manifest-
Nummer, 1910, seventh supplement). The same article shows from how
distiactively capitalist an outlook the better-paid workers regard the May
Day celebration. We read as follows : ' ' Now a few words upon the pecuni-
ary and principal question. By my occupation and as son of a socialist
publican I have come much in contact with working-class circles, and have
questioned a great many working men (many of them organized both
politically and industrially, and some of them earning as much as 45s. a
week) as to their attitude towards the May Day celebration. I am con-
vinced that notwithstanding all their idealism and willingness for self-
sacrifice, the more intelligent workers are disinclined to lose a day's wages
on behalf of May Day. The pecuniary sacrifice has no adequate relationship
to any practical or ideal aim! It would even seem that the better-paid
workers would be foolish to abstain from work on the 1st of May; for one
who has a daily earning of six or seven shillings will, notwithstanding any
subsidy he may receive from the union, have to sacrifice a great deal more
(including what he will lose by being locked out!) than one who earns
no more than three or four shillings a day. The money devoted by the trade
unions to the payment of subsidies could be far better employed in giving
a more brilliant and imposing form to the May Day celebration." — The

292 POLITICAL PARTIES

The need for differentiation is manifested still more clearly
when we consider more extended groups of workers. The differ-
ence between skilled and unskilled workers is primarily and pre-
dominantly economic, and displays itself in a difference of work-
ing conditions. As time passes, this difference becomes trans-
formed into a veritable class distinction. The skilled and better
paid workers hold aloof from the unskilled and worse paid work-
ers. The former are always organized, while the latter remain
"free" labourers; and the fierce economic and social struggles
which occur between the two groups constitute one of the most
interesting phenomena of modern social history. This struggle,
which by the physiologist Angelo Mosso is termed ergomachia,
the struggle for the feeding-ground,® is waged with ever-increas-
ing intensity. The organized workers demand from the unor-
ganized the strictest solidarity, and insist that the latter should
abandon work whenever they themselves are in conflict with the
employers. When this demand is not immediately complied
with, they insult the unorganized workers by the use of oppro-
brious names which have found a place in scientific terminology.
In France, in the days of Louis Philippe, they were called
bourmont and ragusa. At the present day they are in Germany
termed StreikirecJier; in Italy, krumiri; in England, hlacklegs;
in America, scabs; in Hainault, gambes de bos; in France,
jaunes, renards, or bedouins;^ in Holland, onderkruipers; and
so on. It is incontestable that the grievances of the organized
workers against the unorganized are largely justified. On the
other hand, it cannot be denied that in the working class this
ergomachia is not essentially the outcome of differences between
the well-disposed workers and the ill-disposed, as masters and
men naively believe, of course inverting the roles. For the so-
cialists, in fact, the strikers are always heroes and the strike-
breakers are always villains ; whilst for the employers the strike-
breakers are honest and hardworking fellows, whilst the strikers
are idle good-for-nothings. In reality, ergomachia does not con-
sist of a struggle between two categories distinguished by ethical

writer in the " Volksstimme " alludes here to the proposal to abandon the
idea of abstaining from work on May 1st, and to celebrate the occasion
in the evening by a great festival.

* Angelo Mosso, Vita moderna degli Italiani, ed. cit., p. 178,

* Similarly in Italy, towards 1890, the term heduini was employed. Cf .
Sombart, Studien sur EntwicMungsgeseliiclite des italienischen Proletariats,
"Archiv fiir Soz. Gesetzg. u. Statistik, " vol. vi, p. 235.

CLASS DIFFERENTIATION 293

characteristics, but is for the most part a war between the better-
paid workers and the poorer strata of the proletariat. The lat-
ter, from the economic aspect, consist of those who are still eco-
nomically unripe for a struggle with the employers to secure
higher wages. We often hear the most poverty-stricken workers,
conscious of their inferiority, contend that their wages are high
enough, whilst the better paid and organized workers declare that
the unorganized are working at starvation rates. One of the most
indefatigable of French socialist women ^<* has well said : "On
est presque tente d'excuser les trahisons de ces supplanteurs,
quand on a vu, de ses propres yeux vu, tout le tragique du prob-
leme des sans-travail en Angleterre. Dans les grands ports du
sud ou de I'ouest, on voit ranges, le long d'un mur de quale, des
milliers et des milliers d'affames, a la figure have, grelottants,
qui esperent se faire embaucher comme debardeurs. II en faut
quelques dizaines. Quand les portes s'ouvrent, c'est une ter-
rible ruee, une veritable bataille. Recemment, un de ces hommes,
les cotes presses, mourut etouffe dans la melee." The organ-
ized workers, on their side, do not consider themselves obliged
to exhibit solidarity towards the unorganized, even when they
are all sharing a common poverty during crises of unemploy-
ment. The German trades councils often demand that the sub-
sidies which (in accordance with the so-called Strasburg system)
are provided in certain large towns from the public funds to
render assistance in cases of unemployment, should be reserved
for the organized workers, declaring that the unorganized have
no claim to assistance.^^

The more fortunate workers do not only follow their natural
inclination to fight by all available means against their less well-
to-do comrades, who, by accepting lower wages, threaten the
higher standard of life of the organized workers — using in the
struggle, as always happens when economic interests conflict,
methods which disregard every ethical principle. They also
endeavour to hold themselves completely aloof. The union but-
ton is often, as it were, a patent of nobility which distinguishes

"Madame Sorgue, Betour d' Angleterre, "La Societe Nouvelle," xvi, No.
8, p. 197.

"■The reader will find a more copious and more detailed study of this
matter in an essay compiled by the present writer in collaboration with his
wife. Michels, Das FroUem der Arieitslosigkeit und ihre BeMmpfung
durch die deutschen freien GewerTcschaften, "Archiv f. Sozialw.," xxxi,
September 2, 1910, pp. 479-81.

294 POLITICAL PARTIES

its wearer from the plebs. This happens even when the unor-
ganized workers would like nothing better than to make com-
mon cause with the organized. In almost all the large British
and American trade unions there is manifest a tendency to cor-
poratism, to the formation of sharply distinguished working-
class aristocracies.^^ The trade unions, having become rich and
powerful, no longer seek to enlarge their membership, but en-
deavour rather to restrict it by imposing a high entrance fee, by
demanding a certificate of prolonged apprenticeship, and by
other similar means, all deliberately introduced in order to re-
tain certain privileges in their own hands at the expense of other
workers following the same occupation. The anti-alien move-
ment is the outcome of the same professional egoism, and is es-
pecially conspicuous among the Americans and Australians, who
insist upon legislation to forbid the immigration of foreign
workers.^^ The trade unions in such cases adopt a frankly
*' nationalist" policy. In order to keep out the ''undesirables"
they do not hesitate to appeal for aid to the "class-state," and
they exercise upon the government a pressure which may lead
their country to the verge of war with the labour-exporting
land.^* In Europe, too, we may observe, although here to a less
degree, the formation within the labour movement of closed
groups and coteries (and it is in this that the tendency to oli-
garchy consists), which arise in direct conflict with the theoreti-
cal principles of socialism. The workers employed at the Naples
arsenal, who recently demanded of the government that ' ' a third
of the new places to be filled should be allotted to the sons of
existing employees who are following their fathers ' trade, ' ' ^^
are in sentiment by no means so remote from the world of our
day as might at first be imagined. As has been well said^ *'la

^^ Cf ., inter alia, Daniel De Leon, The Burning Question of Trades Union-
ism, Labour News Co., New York, 1906, p. 13.

^^ This phenomenon has recently been well espounded by an Italian polit-
ical economist, a member of the Conservative party — Giuseppe Prato, II
ProtesBionismo operaio e I'Esclusione del Lavoro straniero, Soc. Tip-Editr.
Nazionale, Turin, 1910. This work, however, exhibits a certain tendency to
over- statement, and inclines to ignore the opposing ideological and social-
ist tendencies which are to-day manifest among the organized workers of
continental Europe.

^* The American labour organizations have played a notable part in pro-
ducing tension between the United States and Japan, a tension which, a
few years ago, nearly culminated in war.

^^Angelo Mosso, Vita moderna degli Italiani, ed. cit., p. 191.

CLASS DIFFEREl^^TIATION 295

lutte de classe a pour objectif de faire monter la classe inferieure
an niveau de la superieure, c'est ainsi que les revolutions reus-
sissent souvent, uon a demoeratiser les eugeniques, mais a eu-
geniser les democrats."^*'

The policy of social reform, which finds its most definite ex-
pression in labour legislation, does not entail the same advan-
tages for all sections of the working class. For example, the
law which raises the minimum age of the factory worker will
have varying effects according as may vary the power of the
labour organizations, the rate of wages, the conditions of the la-
bour market, etc., in the different branches of industry or agri-
culture. Thus in certain categories of workers the effect of the
law will be a transient depression of the standard of life, whilst
in other cases it will lead to a permanent elevation in that stand-
ard.^'^ There results an even greater accentuation of the differ-
entiation which the proletarian groupings already present as the
outcome of national, local, and technical differences.

To sum up, it may be affirmed that in the contemporary work-
ing class there is already manifest a horizontal stratification.
Within the quatrieme etat we see already the movements of the
embryonic cinquieme etat. One of the greatest dangers to the
socialist movement, and one which must not be lightly disre-
garded as impossible, is that gradually there may come into ex-
istence a number of different strata of workers, as the outcome
of the influence of a general increase of social wealth, in con-
junction with the efforts made by the workers themselves to ele-
vate their standard of life; this may in many cases enable them
to secure a position in which, though they may not completely
lose the common human feeling of never being able to get
enough, from which even millionaires are not altogether ex-
empt, they will become so far personally satisfied as to be gradu-
ally estranged from the ardent revolutionary aspirations of the
masses towards a social system utterly different from our own —

"Cf. Eaoul de La Graeerie, Les Luttes Sociales, "Annales de I'lnstitut
intern, de Soeiologie, " vol. xi, p. 185.

"It is for this reason that in debates concerning the beneficial or in-
jurious character of laws for the protection of labour and for the improve-
ment of housing conditions, it is altogether erroneous to answer the ques-
tions involved with a simple yes or no. In Italy, in especial, the dispute has
been conducted from a restricted outlook, although with great ardour and
brilliancy of thought. Of., for example, the polemic m the review "II
Socialismo" during the year 1907 between Gina Lombroso and Tullio Eossi
Doria.

296 POLITICAL PARTIES

aspirations born of privation.^® Thus the working class will
become severed into two unequal parts, subject to perpetual fluc-
tuations in their respective size.

" ' ' The more the personal well-being of the workman increases, the more
harshly practical does he tend to become. Whilst still paying his theoretical
tribute to the imperishable memory of Marx, what really interests him is
to give a more vigorous support to his union ' ' (F. Naumann, Das Schicksal
des Marxismus, "Die Hilfe," siv, No. 41).

CHAPTER V

LABOUR LEADERS OF PROLETARIAN ORIGIN

Attempts have not been lacking to solve the insoluble problem,
how to obviate the leaders' dominion over the led. Among such
attempts, there is one which is made with especial frequency,
and which is advocated with considerable heat, to exclude all
intellectuals from leadership in the working-class movement.
This proposal reflects the dislike of the intellectuals which, in
varying degrees, has been manifested in all countries and at all
times. It culminates in the artificial creation of authenticated
working-class leaders, and is based upon certain general social-
ist dogmas, mutilated or imperfectly understood, or interpreted
with undue strictness — on an appeal, for instance, to the prin-
ciple enunciated at the constitutive congress of the first Interna-
tional held at Geneva in 1866, that the emancipation of the work-
ers can be effected only by the workers themselves.

Above all, however, such proposals are based upon an alleged
greater kinship between the leaders of proletarian origin and
the proletarians they lead. The leaders who have themselves
been manual workers are, we are told, more closely allied to the
masses in their mode of thought, understand the workers better,
experience the same needs as these, and are animated by the
same desires. There is a certain amount of truth in this, inas-
much as the ex-worker can not only speak with more authority
than the intellectual upon technical questions relating to his
former occupation, but has a knowledge of the psychology and
of the material details of working-class life derived from per-
sonal experience. It is unquestionably true that in the leaders of
proletarian origin, as compared with the intellectuals, we see
conspicuously exhibited the advantages of leadership as well as
the disadvantages, since the proletarian commonly possesses a
more precise understanding of the psychology of the masses,
knows better how to deal with the workers. From this circum-
stance the deduction is sometimes made that the ex- worker, when
he has become immersed in the duties of political leadership, will

297

298 POLITICAL PARTIES

continue to preserve a steady and secure contact with the rank
and file, that he will choose the most practicable routes, and that
his own proletarian experiences will afford a certain safeguard
against his conducting the masses into regions and by-paths from
which they are by nature totally estranged.^

The central feature of the syndicalist theory is found in the
demand for direct action on the part of the trade union, enfran-
chised from the tutelage of socialist leaders predominantly bour-
geois in origin, the union being self-sufficient and responsible to
itself alone. Direct action means that the proletariat is to pur-
sue its aims without the intermediation of parliamentary repre-
sentation. Syndicalism is described as the apotheosis of prole-
tarian autonomy. Everything is to be effected by the energy,
initiative, and courage of individual workers. The organized
proletariat is to consist of an army of franc-tireurs, disembar-
rassed of the impotent general staff of effete socialist bureau-
crats, unhampered^ autonomous^ and sovereign.^ Passing, how-
ever, from fiction to fact, we find that the most substantial dif-
ference between syndicalism and political socialism, apart from
questions of tactics, is to be found in a difference of social ori-
gin in the leaders of the respective tendencies. The trade union
is governed by persons who have themselves been workers, and
from this the advocates of syndicalism infer, by a bold logical
leap, that the policy of the leaders of working-class origin must
necessarily coincide with the policy of the proletariat.^

The syndicalist leaders are to be, both in the intellectual and
moral sense, chosen manual workers.* The leader of working-
class origin is regarded as the Messiah who will cure all the ills
of proletarian organization; he is, in any case, the best of all
possible leaders.^

^ It was this consideration which led the Milanese labour party, in the
year 1882 and subsequently, to decide that it would accept as members
none but manual workers. (Cf. Michels, Eine exMusivistische Arheiter-
partei in Italien im Jahre, 1882, ' ' Archiv f iir Sozialismus, ' ' Karl Griinberg,
Vienna, anno i, fasc. 2, pp. 291 et seq.

- Edouard Berth, Les nouveaux Aspects du Socialisme, Eiviere, Paris,
1908, p. 30.

^ Emile Pouget, Le Parti du Travail, Bibl. Syndicaliste, Paris, No. 3,
p. 12.

* Fernand PeUoutier, Histoire des Bourses du Travail, ed. cit., p. 86.

° Among the great majority of the revisionist and reformist socialists we
find a similar tendency to overestimate the importance of leaders of working-
class origin.

PROLETARIANS AS LEADERS 299

It is hardly necessary to point out that it is an illusion to
imagine that by entrusting its affairs to proletarian leaders the
proletariat will control these affairs more directly than if the
leaders are lawj'ers or doctors. In both eases, all action is ef-
fected through intermediaries. In the modern labour movement
it is impossible for the leader to remain in actual fact a manual
worker. Directly a trade union selects one of the comrades in
the factory to minister regularly to the collective interests in
return for a definite salary, this comrade is, consciously or not,
lifted out of the working class into a new class, that of the sal-
aried employees.*' The proletarian leader has ceased to be a
manual worker, not solely in the material sense, but psychologi-
cally and economically as well. It is not merely that he has
ceased to quarry stones or to sole shoes, but that he has become
an intermediary just as much as his colleagues in leadership, the
lawyer and the doctor. In other words, as delegate and repre-
sentative, the leader of proletarian origin is subject to exactly
the same oligarchical tendencies as is the bourgeois refugee who
has become a labour leader. The manual worker of former days
is henceforward a declasse.

Among all the leaders of the working class, it is the trade-
union leaders who have been most sympatheticaly treated in the
literature of the social sciences. This is very natural. Books are
written by men of science and men of letters. Such persons
are, as a rule, more favourably disposed towards the leaders of
the trade-union movement than towards the leaders of the politi-
cal labour movement, for the former do not, as do so often the
latter, encroach upon the writer's field of activity, nor disturb
his circle of ideas with new and intrusive theories. It is for
this reason that often in the same learned volume we find praise
of the trade-union leader side by side with blame of the socialist
leader.

It has been claimed that service as buffers between employers
and employed has led in the leaders to the development of ad-
mirable and precious qualities; adroitness and scrupulousness,
patience and energy, firmness of character and personal honesty.
It has even been asserted that they are persons of an exception-
ally chaste life, and this characteristic has been attributed to the
comparative absence of sexual desires which, in accordance with
the law of psychological compensation discovered by Guglielmo
Ferrero, is supposed to characterize all persons exceptionally de-
"Cf. supra, p. 277, note 22,

300 POLITICAL PARTIES

voted to duty.^ Two qualities in whicli most of the trade-union
leaders unquestionably excel are objective gravity and individual
good sense (often united with a lack of interest in and under-
standing of wider problems), derived from the exceptionally
keen sense they have of direct personal responsibility, and in
part perhaps from the dry and predominantly technical and ad-
ministrative quality of their occupations.^ The trade-union
leaders have been deliberately contrasted with the verbal revo-
lutionists who guide the political labour movement, men of the
type of the loquacious Eabagas in Sardou's play, and, not with-
out exaggeration, there has been ascribed to the former a sound
political sense which is supposed to be lacking in the latter — an
insight into the extraordinary complexity of social and economic
life and a keen understanding of the politically practicable.^
The nucleus of truth which such observations contain is that
the trade-union leaders (leaving out of consideration for the

" Arturo Salueci, La Teoria dello Sciopero, Libr. Moderna, Genoa, 1902, p.
151. Salueci goes so far as to affirm that while the trade-union leaders
marry quite young, marriage is for them not so much a union for sexual
purposes as a matter of "comfort to them in their lives of continual
agitation." The analyses produced by many authors of the psychology of
trade-union leaders remind us at times of the reports of travellers in
foreign lands, who tell us of human beings altogether different from those
with whom we are acquainted, and even of actions which appear utterly
opposed to nature. Herein we have a criterion which leads us to doubt the
trustworthiness of such reports, even when they are not adorned with stories
of matters demonstrably false, as of dragons, centaurs, and other mythical
monsters. (Cf. David Hume, Enquiries Concerning the Human Under-
standing, ed. Clar. Press, edited by Selby-Bigge, Oxford, 1902, p. 84).

The exaggeration which is so often manifested in the enumeration and
description of the good qualities of the trade-union leaders can be explained
on political grounds. It arises from the satisfaction felt in bourgeois circles
with the practical tendencies of these leaders, and from the hope that is
placed in them by the opponents of revolutionary socialism.

*Even the opponents of such men in the labour movement do not deny
what is said in the text. For instance, Ernesto Cesare Longobardi, in an
article criticizing the tactics of the Italian General Confederation of Labour,
admits that the members of the executive committee of this body display
technical competence, familiarity with the problems of working-class life,
and unremitting industry (La Crisi nelle Organissasioni operaie, "II Vian-
dante," anno i. No. 29).

'Werner Sombart, Dennoch! Aus Theorie u. GescJiichte der Gewerkschaft-
UcJien ArTjeiterhewegung, Fischer, Jena, 1900, pp. 90-1; Salueci, La Teoria
dello Sciopero, ed. cit., p. 152; Herkner, Die Art eiterf rage, ed. eit., p. 156;
Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Industrial Democracy, ed. cit., p. 152; Paul de
Eousiers, Le Trade-unionisme en Angleterre, Colin, Paris, 1897, p. 368;
Eduard Bernstein, Die Arheiterbewegung , ed. cit., p. 147.

PROLETARIANS AS LEADERS 301

present those of syndicalist tendency) differ in many respects
from the leaders of political socialism.

Among the trade-union leaders themselves, however, there are
great differences, corresponding to the different phases of the
trade-union movement. The qualities requisite for the leadership
of an organization whose finances are still weak, and which de-
votes itself chiefly to propaganda and strikes, must necessarily
differ from those requisite for the leadership of a trade union
supplying an abundance of solid benefits and aiming above all
at peaceful practical results. In the former case the chief re-
quisites are enthusiasm and the talents of the preacher. The
work of the organizer is closely analogous to that of the rebel
or the apostle. According to certain critics, these qualities may
well be associated, above all in the early days of the proletarian
movement, with the crassest ignorance.^" During this period,
propaganda is chiefly romantic and sentimental, and its objective
is moral rather than material. Very different is it when the
movement is more advanced. The great complexity of the du-
ties which the trade union has now to fulfil and the increasing
importance assumed in the life of the union by financial, tech-
nical, and administrative questions, render it necessary that the
agitator should give place to the employee equipped with tech-
nical knowledge. The commercial traveller in the class struggle
is replaced by the strict and prosaic bureaucrat, the fervent
idealist by the cold materialist, the democrat whose convictions
are (at least in theory) absolutely firm by the conscious autocrat.
Oratorical activity passes into the background, for administra-
tive aptitudes are now of the first importance. Consequently, in
this new period, while the leadership of the movement is less
noisy, less brilliant^ and less glorious, it is of a far more solid
character, established upon a much sounder practical compe-
tence. The leaders are now differentiated from the mass of their
followers, not only by their personal qualities as specialists en-
dowed with insight and mastery of routine, but in addition by
the barrier of the rules and regulations which guide their own
actions and with the aid of which they control the rank and file.
The rules of the German federation of metal-workers occupy
forty-seven printed pages and are divided into thirty-nine para-
graphs, each consisting of from ten to twelve sections." Where

" Fausto Pagliari, Le Organizzasioni e i loro Impiegati, ed. eit., p. 6.
" Herkner, Die Arheiterfrage, ed. cit., p. 116. — It may be noted that the
abundance of rules and regulations is one of the historical causes of the

302 POLITICAL PARTIES

is the workman who would not lose himself in such a labyrinth ?
The modern trade-union official, above all if he directs a federa-
tion, must have precise knowledge of a given branch of industry,
and must know how at any moment to form a sound estimate of
the comparative forces of his own organization and the adver-
saries'.

He must be equally well acquainted with the technical and
with the economic side of the industry. He must know the
cost of manufacture of the commodities concerned, the source
and cost of the raw materials, the state of the markets, the
wages and conditions of the workers in different regions. He
must possess the talents at once of a general and those of a
diplomatist.^^

These excellent qualities of the trade-union leader are not
always compatible with the democratic regime, and indeed they
often conflict unmistakably with the conditions of this regime.

It is especially in the ex-manual worker that the love of power
manifests itself with the greatest intensity. Having just suc-
ceeded in throwing off the chains he wore as a wage-labourer and
a vassal of capital, he is least of all disposed to indue new chains
which will bind him as a slave of the masses. Like all freed-
men, he has a certain tendency to abuse his newly acquired free-
dom— a tendency to libertinage. In all countries we learn from
experience that the working-class leader of proletarian origin is
apt to be capricious and despotic. He is extremely loath to tol-
erate contradiction. This trait is doubtless partly dependent
upon his character as parvenu, for it is in the nature of the
parvenu to maintain his authority with extreme jealousy, to
regard all criticism as an attempt to humiliate him and to
diminish his importance, as a deliberate and ill-natured allusion
to his past. Just as the converted Jew dislikes references to his
Hebrew birth, so also the labour leader of proletarian origin

distance which has been established between the class of employees and the
mass. Colbert tells us that the French bureaucracy was born out of the
mania for codification. "Son oppression devint inquiete, diffuse, minu-
tieuse, et se perdit dans une telle generation de reglements que, par exemple,
le seul code des marchands de bois de Paris egale en volume tout le Corps
du Droit Eomain" (Lemontey, Essai sur I'Etdblissement monarcMque de
Louis XIV, ed. cit., p. 339). — Enough has been said to enable us to judge
the value of the opinion sometimes expressed (cf. Oetors, De CatecTiismAis
van den Werhman, ed. cit., p. 21) that the problem of trade-union organiza-
tion is so simple that any workman can master it.
^C. Pagliari, Le Organissasioni, etc., ed. cit., p. 7,

PROLETAHIANS AS LEADERS 303

dislikes any references to his state of dependence and his posi-
tion as an employee.

Nor must it be forgotten that, like all self-made men^, the
trade-union leader is intensely vain. Although he commonly
possesses extensive knowledge of material details, he lacks gen-
eral culture and a wide philosophical view,^^ and is devoid of
the secure self-confidence of the born leader; for these reasons
he is apt to show himself less resistant than he should be towards
the interested and amiable advances of bourgeois notables. In
a letter to Sorge, Engels wrote of England : ^* " The most re-
pulsive thing in this country is the bourgeois 'respectability'
which has invaded the very blood and bone of the workers. The
organization of society into firmly established hierarchical grada-
tions, in which each one has his proper pride, but also an inborn
respect for his 'betters' and 'superiors,' is taken so much as a
matter of course, is so ancient and traditional, that it is com-
paratively easy for the bourgeois to play the part of seducers.
For example, I am by no means sure that John Burns is not
prouder in the depths of his soul of his popularity with Car-
dinal Manning, the Lord Mayor, and the bourgeoisie in general,
than of his popularity among his own class. Even Tom Mann,
whom I regard as the best of these leaders of working-class
origin, is glad to talk of how he went to lunch with the Lord
Mayor."

In Germany, one of the few "class-conscious" German
workers who have come into personal contact with William
II did not venture in the royal presence to give expression to
his convictions or to manifest his fidelity to the principles of

^ The twilight of culture which has been dispersed through the proletariat
through the participation of modern workers in politics and in iutellectual
discussions bearing upon political life, often produces in the minds of such
persons an attitude which Sombart rather unhappily terms "dogmatism"
(Werner Sombart, Das Proletariat, Eiitten u. Loeniag, Frankfort-on-the
Main, 1906, p. 84), but one which is certainly not apt to contribute to
freedom of the spirit. It is very natural that this should be so. The share
of culture which the modern working man has won for himself at an
incredible cost of physical and mental energy necessarily seems to him
(who lacks leisure and adequate preliminary knowledge to make a good
use of what he has learned, and who lacks the ability to control the ac-
curacy of his own mental acquirements) a noli me tangere, an invaluable
treasure, which must be relentlessly and zealously guarded against all
criticism (his own or another's) precisely because it has been won by so
much labour.

^"^ Brief e und Ausziige, etc., ed. cit., pp. 324-5.

304 POLITICAL PARTIES

his party.^^ There already exists in the proletariat an extensive
stratum consisting of the directors of cooperative societies, the
secretaries of trade unions, the trusted leaders of various or-
ganizations, whose psychology is entirely modelled upon that of
the bourgeois classes with whom they associate.^^

The new environment exercises a potent influence upon the
ex-manual worker. His manners become gentler and more re-
fined.^^ In his daily association with persons of the highest
birth he learns the usages of good society and endeavours to as-
similate them. Not infrequently the working-class deputies en-
deavour to mask the change which has occurred. The socialist
leaders, and the same is true of the democratic-Christians and
the trade-union leaders, if of working-class origin, when speak-
ing to the masses like to describe themselves as working men.
By laying stress upon their origin, upon the characteristics
they share with the rank and file, they ensure a good reception
and inspire affection and confidence. During the elections of
1848 in France it was the mode for candidates to speak of them-
selves as ouvriers. This was not simply a title of honour, but
also a title which helped to success. No less than twenty-one of
these ouvriers thus secured election. The real signification of

^"Arbeiterzeitung" of Dortmund, September 16, 1903: "In the year
1900, the representatives of the Imperial Insurance Institute were com-
manded to an audience at the court, on the occasion of the inauguration of
the new administrative building in Berlin, The stucco-worker Buchholz,
well known in trade-union circles, was present with his colleagues. Buchholz,
who was wearing the iron cross, attracted the personal attention of William
II. The king was apparently aware of Buchholz 's position as a socialist,
and said: 'I believe the socialists are all opponents of the monarchy?'
Buchholz promptly answered: 'No, Your Majesty, not all! ' "

" The princes of the ancien regime, being profound psychologists, knew
better than the socialists of to-day how to value at its worth the influence
of environment upon personality. In the political testament of Augustus
II of Saxony, King of Poland, we find a remarkable passage in which he
recommended his successor to change ambassadors frequently, for they were
apt to accommodate themselves to the interests of the court to which they
were accredited, and to allow themselves to be overcome by the influences
of their new environment (Paul Haake, Ein PolitiscTies Testament Konig
Augusts der StarTcen, "Historische Zeitsehrif t, " Ixxxvii, fasc. 1, p. 7),

*' ' ' Among the fifty-eight socialist deputies, there are at least thirty who
come from the factory or the workshop and whose natural temperamental
energy has never been chastened by the discipline of the drawing-room; it
should certainly give occasion for astonishment to the bourgeois that they
are almost invariably well-behaved, that they hardly ever break the con-
ventions" (Maximilian Harden, "Zukunft," anno x, No. 2, December 6,
1902).

PROLETARIANS AS LEADERS 305

this title may be learned from a study of the list of candidates
presented by the modern socialist party in France, Italy, and
elsewhere; here we find that a master-tinsmith (a man who
keeps a shop and is therefore a petty bourgeois) describes him-
self as a "tinker," and so on. It even happens that the same
candidate wiU describe himself as a workman in an electoral ad-
dress intended for working-class readers, and as an employer in
an appeal to the bourgeoisie. When they have entered Parlia-
ment, some of the ex-manual workers continue, more or less os-
tentatiously, to differentiate themselves by their dress from
their bourgeois colleagues. But it is not by such external signs
of a proletarian origin that they can hope to prevent the internal
change, which was described by Jaures (before his own adhesion
to socialism) in the following terms: "Les deputes ouvriers qui
arrivent au Parlement s 'embourgeoisent vite, au mauvais sens du
mot ; ils perdent leur seve et leur energie premiere, et il ne leur
reste plus qu'une sorte de sentimentalite de tribune."^®

Inspired with a foolish self-satisfaction, the ex-worker is apt
to take pleasure in his new environment, and he tends to become
indifferent and even hostile to all progressive aspirations in the
democratic sense. He accommodates himself to the existing
order, and ultimately, weary of the struggle, becomes even rec-
onciled to that order.^^ What interest for them has now the
dogma of the social revolution? Their own social revolution
has already been effected. At bottom, all the thoughts of these
leaders are concentrated upon the single hope that there shall
long continue to exist a proletariat to choose them as its dele-
gates and to provide them with a livelihood.^" Consequently

"Jean Jaures, "Depeche de Toulouse," November 12, 1887,
"Max Weber, a few years ago, advised the German princes, if they
wished to appease their terrors of socialism, to spend a day on the
platform at a socialist congress, so that they might convince them-
selves that in the whole crowd of assembled revolutionists "the
dominant type of expression was that of the petty bourgeois, of the
self-satisfied innkeeper," and that there was no trace of genuine revo-
lutionary enthusiasm (Max Weber's speech at the Magdeburg congress
of the Verein fiir Sozialpolitik, stenographic report of the sitting,
October 2, 1907).

«> Madeleine Pelletier {La Fin du Guesdisme, "Guerre Sociale," iii,
No. 4), writing of the evolution of the French labour leaders, says:
"Mais I'age, la maladie, etaient venus et I'anenergie avec eux. Autour
du Maitre s 'etaient formes des centaines d'eleves que la lutte des
classes avaient fait deputes, conseillers generaux et municipaux, maires,
secretaires de mairie et qui, enchantes de I'aubaine, songeaient, sana

306 POLITICAL PARTIES

they contend that what is above all necessary is to organize, to
organize unceasingly, and that the cause of the workers will
not gain the victory until the last worker has been enrolled in
the organization. Like all the heati possidentes, they are poor
fighters. They incline, as in England, to a theory in accordance
with which the workers and the capitalists are to be united in a
kind of league, and to share, although still unequally, in the
profits of a common enterprise. Thus the wages of the la-
bourers become dependent upon the returns of the business. This
doctrine, based upon the principle of what is known as the
sliding-scale, throws a veil over all existing class-antagonisms
and impresses upon labour organizations a purely mercantile
and technical stamp. If a struggle becomes inevitable, the
leader undertakes prolonged negotiations with the enemy; the
more protracted these negotiations, the more often is his name
repeated in the newspapers and by the public. If he con-
tinues to express "reasonable opinions," he may be sure of
securing at once the praise of his opponents and (in most cases)
the admiring gratitude of the crowd.

Personal egoism, pusillanimity, and baseness are often as-
sociated with a fund of good sense and wide knowledge, and so
intimately associated that a distinction of the good qualities
from the bad becomes a difficult matter. The hotheads, who
are not lacking among the labour leaders of proletarian origin,
become cool. They have acquired a conscientious conviction
that it would be a mistake to pursue an aggressive policy,
which would in their view not merely fail to bring any profit,
but would endanger the results hitherto attained. Thus in most
cases two orders of motives are in operation, the egoistic and
the objective, working hand in hand. The resultant of these
influences is that state of comparative calm proper to the labour
leader, regarding which an employee of one of the trade unions
has expressed himself with great frankness: "It is no matter
for reproach, but is perfectly comprehensible, that when we
were all still working at the bench and had to get along as
best we could with our small wages, we had a keener personal
interest in a speedy change of the existing social order than
we have in our present conditions. ' ' ^^ Such a state of mind will

oser I'avouer, que le besoin d'une revolution sociale ne se faisait plus aussi
vivement son tir qu'au temps ou ils gagnaient cent sous par jour."

=^Kloth, leader of the bookbinders' union, speaking at the conference
of the trade-union executives in Berlin, 1906 {ProtoTcoll, p. 10). In the

PROLETARIANS AS LEADERS 307

be yet further reinforced if the former manual worker should be,
as he often is, engaged in journalistic work. Although in most
cases he will with admirable diligence have amassed a con-
siderable amount of knowledge, he has not had the necessary
preliminary training to enable him to assemble, re-elaborate,
and assimilate the elements of his knowledge to constitute a
scientific doctrine, or even to create for himself a system of
directive ideas. Consequently his personal inclinations towards
quietism cannot be neutralized, as unquestionably happens in
the case of many Marxists, by the preponderant energy of a
comprehensive theory, Marx long ago recognized this defect in
proletarian leaders, saying: ''When the workers abandon
manual labour to become professional writers, they almost al-
ways make a mess of the theoretical side. ' ' ^^

"We see, then, that the substitution of leaders of proletarian
origin for those of bourgeois origin offers the working-class
movement no guarantee, either in theory or in practice, against
the political or moral infidelity of the leaders. In 1848, when
the elections ordered by the provisional government took place
in France, eleven of the deputies who entered the Chamber
were members of the working class. No less than ten of these
promptly abandoned the labour programme on the strength of
which they had been elected.^^ A yet more charactertistic ex-
ample is furnished by the history of the leaders of the Italian
branch of the International (1868-79). Here the leaders, who
were for the most part derived from the bourgeoisie and the
nobility, nearly all showed themselves to be persons of dis-
tinguished worth. The only two exceptions were men of work-
ing-class origin. Stefano Caporusso, who spoke of himself as
*'the model workingman," embezzled the funds of the socialist
group of Naples, of which he was the president; while Carlo
Terzaghi, president of the section of Turin, turned out to be
a police spy and was expelled from the party .^* Speaking gen-
erally, we learn from the history of the labour movement that a
socialist party is exposed to the influence of the political en-

Protol-oll it is here noted that there were vigorous cries of objection,
and also the remark, "What you say applies still more to the employees
of the socialist party." (Cf. supra, p. 146.)

»* Letter to Sorge, October 19, 1877, Brief e u. Auszuge, etc., ed.
cit., p. 159,

"Arthur Arnould, Eistoire populaire et parlementaire de la Com-
mune de Paris, Kistemaekers, Brussels, 1878, vol. ii, p. 43.

^ Cf . Michels, Froletariato et Borghesia, etc., ed, cit., pp. 72 et seq.

308 POLITICAL PAHTIES

vironment in proportion to the degree in wMcli it is genuinely
proletarian in character. The first deputy of the Italian socialist
party (which at that time consisted exclusively of manual work-
ers), Antonio MafS, a type-founder, elected to parliament in
1882, speedily joined one of the bourgeois sections of the left,
declaring that his election as a working man did not make it
necessary for him to set himself in opposition to the other
classes of society.^^ In France, the two men who under the
Second Empire had been the leaders of the Proudhonists, Henri
Louis Tolain, the engraver, and Fribourg, the compositor, and
who at the first international congress in Geneva (1866) had
urgently advocated an addition to the rules to effect the ex-
clusion of all intellectuals and bourgeois from the organization,
when the Commune was declared in 1871 ranged themselves on
the side of Thiers, and were therefore expelled from the In-
ternational as traitors. It may be added that Tolain ended his
career as a senator under the conservative republic. Odger,
the English labour leader, a member of the general council of
the International, abandoned this body after the insurrection
in Paris. It is true that he was in part influenced in this
direction by his objection to the dictatorial methods of Marx.
But Marx could rejoin, not without reason, that Odger had
wished merely to make use of the International to acquire the
confidence of the masses, and that he was ready to turn his
back upon socialism as soon as it seemed to him an obstacle to
his political career. A similar case was that of Lucraft, also
on the general council of the International, who secured an
appointment as school inspector under the British government.^^
In a word, it may said that when the forces of the workers are
led against the bourgeoisie by men of working-class origin,
the attack is always less vigorous and conducted in a way less
accordant with the alleged aims of the movement than when the
leaders of the workers spring from some other class. A French
critic, referring to the political conduct of the working-class
leaders of the proletariat, declares that alike intellectually and
morally they are inferior to the leaders of bourgeois origin,
lacking the education and the culture which these possess. The
same writer declares that the behaviour of many of the leaders
of working-class origin cannot fail to contribute to the intensive

** Alfredo Angiolini, Cinquent'anni di Socialismo in Italia, ed. cit.,
pp. 180-6.
^Gr. Jaeckh, Die Internationale, ed. cit,, p. 152.

PROLETARIANS AS LEADERS 300

culture of anti-parliamentarist tendencies. ''Apres le regne de
la feodalite, nous avons eu le regne de la bourgeoisie. Apres le
bourgeois, aurons-nous le contremaitre ? — Notre ennemi, c'est
notre maitre, a dit La Fontaine. Mais le maitre le plus redout-
able, e 'est eelui qui sort de nos rangs et qui, a force de mensonges
et de roublardises, a su s 'elever jusqu 'au pouvoir. ' ' ^'^

It was hoped that the energetic entry of the proletariat upon
the world-stage would have an ethically regenerative influence,
that the new elements would exercise a continuous and un-
wearied control over the public authorities, and that (endowed
with a keen sense of responsibility) they would strictly control
the working of their own organizations. These anticipations
have been disappointed by the oligarchical tendencies of the
workers themselves. As Cesare Lombroso pointed out without
contradiction in an article published in the central organ of
the Italian socialist party, the more the proletariat approxi-
mates to the possession of the power and the wealth of the
bourgeoisie, the more does it adopt all the vices of its opponent
and the more does it become an instrument of corruption.
* ' Then there arise all those subdivisions of our so-called popular
parties, which have all the vices of the bourgeois parties, which
claim and often possess a prestige among the people, and which
easily become the tools of governmental corruption sailing un-
der liberal colours in their name. ' ' ^® We have sufficient ex-
amples in European history, even in that of very recent date,
of the manner in which the artificial attempt to retain the
party leadership in proletarian hands has led to a political
misoneism against which the organized workers of all countries
have every reason to be on their guard. The complaint so
frequently voiced by the rank and file of the socialists that
almost all the defects of the movement arise from the flooding
of the proletarian party with bourgeois elements are merely
the outcome of ignorance of the historical characteristics of the
period through which we are now passing.

="Flax (Victor Merie), Coutant (d'lvry), ''Hommes du Jour," Paris,
908, No. 32.

^Cesare Lombroso, I Frutti di un Voto, "Avanti," No. 2987 (AprU
27, 1905). The criminologist Eaffaele Garofalo prophesies that the
protelariat will follow in the footsteps of the bourgeoisie, "that tiers etat
which was to substitute its youthful energies for a decadent and degen-
erate aristocracy," but which instead of doing this "has displayed a
hundred-fold the defects and the corruption of its predecessors" (Garo-
falo, La Superstisione socialista, Turin, 1894, p. 178).

310 POLITICAL PARTIES

The leaders of the democratic parties do not present every-
where the same type, for the complex of tendencies by which
they are influenced necessarily varies in accordance with en-
vironment, national character, climate, historical tradition, etc.

The United States of America is the land of the almighty
dollar. In no other country in the world does public life seem
to be dominated to the same extent by the thirst for gold. The
unrestricted power of capital necessarily involves corruption.
In America, however, this corruption is not merely exhibited
upon a gigantic scale, but, if we are to believe American
critics, has become a recognized institution.^" Whilst in Europe
such corruption gives rise to censure and anger, in America it is
treated with indifference or arouses no more than an indulgent
smile. Lecky declares that if we were to judge the Americans
solely by the manner in which they conduct themselves in
public life, our judgments would be extremely unfavourable —
and unjust.^"

We cannot wonder, then, that North America should be pre-
eminently the country in which the aristocratic tendencies of
the labour leaders, fostered by an environment often permeated,
as has just been explained, by a gross and unrefined materialism,

'* The extent to which, in the States, corruption has progressed among
the representatives of the people would seem to be displayed by a news-
item recently circulated in the principal European papers. In this
we were told that a society had been formed in Washington, known as
the "Private Secretaries' Union," which was to protect its members
against being plundered by the American popular representatives. The
members of the House of Eeprescntatives are paid, in addition to their
salary of $7,500 a year, a sum of $1,500 for a secretary. The congress-
men receive this supplement personally, but must furnish documentary
proof that the amount is paid over to a secretary. Many of these states-
men, being of a thrifty disposition, engage a shorthand writer for the
session at a fee of $500, and pocket the balance. Others install relatives
of their own as private secretaries, so that all the money shall be kept in
the family. Another arrangement is for five of the congressmen to combine
to employ a common secretary, who receives $3,000 a year, but each of
the five employers clears $900 by the transaction. Thus there are numerous
variations, but in any case the private secretary fails to secure all the
fruits of his labour.

^"W. E. H. Lecky, Democracy and Liberty, ed. cit., vol. i, pp. 113-14.
According to Eobert Clarkson Brooks (Corruption in American Politics and
Life, Dodd Mead & Co., New York, 1910, p. 54), the corruption existing
in the States is merely the expression of the higher moral level of public
life: "If monarchies are less corrupt than democracies, it is also true
that monarchi